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ADOLESCENCE  AND 

HIGH-SCHOOL 

PROBLEMS 


BY 

RALPH  W.  PRINGLE 

PRINCIPAL   OF   THE    UNIVERSITY   HIGH   SCHOOL 
ILLINOIS  STATE    NORMAL   UNIVERSITY 


WITH   INTRODUCTION   BY 

LOTUS  D.  COFFMAN 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA 


D.    C.   HEATH   &   CO.,   PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


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Copyright,  1923, 
By  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

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PRINTBD  IN  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  had  its  origin  in  a  course  which  was  organized  a 
few  years  ago  for  prospective  high-school  teachers  and  princi- 
pals. The  author  taught  the  course  to  an  increasing  number  of 
students  in  the  Teachers  College  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University;  and  the  material  here  presented  continues  to  meet 
the  interests  and  needs  of  the  class  of  students  for  whom  it  was 
planned. 

The  discussions  offered  are  not  the  result  of  original  investi- 
gations in  the  field  of  secondary  education.  The  aim  has  been 
to  produce  a  book  that  will  be  helpful  to  any  one  who  expects 
to  do  high-school  work  and  to  all  others  who  are  responsible 
for  the  welfare  of  adolescents.  The  table  of  contents  shows 
that,  while  there  has  been  no  attempt  at  completeness,  the  sub- 
jects chosen  for  treatment  include  such  matters  as  all  experi- 
enced workers  in  the  field  of  secondary  education  will  recognize 
as  vital.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book  will  be  of  practical  rather 
than  theoretical  interest.  The  author  has  always  had  in  mind 
real  boys  and  girls  and  concrete  situations.  The  book  is  based 
on  more  than  twenty  years'  experience  as  principal  of  public 
high  schools  and  nine  years  in  training  young  men  and  women 
for  high-school  positions.  The  experience  and  observation  of 
many  writers  and  co-workers  have  been  drawn  upon  with  free- 
dom, but  constant  acknowledgment  is  not  deemed  practical. 

The  plan  of  the  book  is  simple:  it  attempts  to  describe  the 
nature  of  boys  and  girls  of  high-school  age;  then,  in  the  light 
of  this  knowledge  of  adolescence,  it  seeks  solutions  for  various 
problems  growing  out  of  high-school  teaching  and  management. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  deal  with  teaching  problems  as  such. 
In  all  the  discussions,  it  is  assumed  that  the  development  of 

ill 

703i)67 


IV  PREFACE 

the  youth,  rather  than  what  he  expects  to  do,  furnishes  the  safest 
and  most  practical  basis  for  the  selection  of  educational  ma- 
terial and  the  determination  of  educational  methods.  It  would 
seem  that  both  the  new  psychology  and  the  new  sociology  teach 
us  that,  while  giving  attention  to  the  future  of  our  high-school 
pupils,  we  should  not  neglect  their  present  interests  and  needs, 
and  that  the  only  way  to  give  them  training  in  general  social 
efficiency  is  through  specific,  concrete  practice.  It  is  hoped 
that  there  is  always  manifest  in  these  discussions  "democratic 
respect  for  the  individual;"  to  miss  this  would  be  to  lose  sight 
of  one  of  the  most  significant  teachings  of  the  psychology  of 
adolescence. 

The  reader  will  find  each  chapter  complete  in  itself;  but 
there  has  been  a  serious  attempt  to  secure  a  real  unity  through- 
out the  book.  This  unity  it  is  hoped  is  brought  about  by  the 
maintenance  of  the  viewpoint  already  described. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  one  who  at  present  publishes 
anything  on  certain  phases  of  secondary  education  is  guilty  of 
considerable  temerity.  Educational  ideals  are  ever  changing; 
but  the  present  is  understood  by  all  students  of  education  to  be 
a  period  profoundly  transitional.  The  social  and  economic 
unrest  of  the  years  immediately  preceding  the  great  war, 
together  with  many  other  causes,  greatly  disturbed  the  educa- 
tional thinking  of  the  country  and  occasionally  the  practice; 
and  the  war,  with  its  exposures  and  consequences,  has  still 
further  troubled  the  educational  waters.  Moreover,  it  is  in 
the  field  of  secondary  education  especially  that  new  policies 
are  manifest  and  a  fimdamental  reorganization  is  already  in 
progress. 

If  we  are  to  judge  by  the  utterances  of  the  more  advanced 
thinkers,  the  high-school  curriculum  is  little  more  than  a 
flux,  and  many  of  the  traditional  methods  are  either  being 
seriously  questioned  or  wholly  rejected.  In  the  present  instance, 
however,  there  may  be  comfort  in  the  thought  that,  although 


PREFACE  V 

educational  theories  are  rapidly  changing  (like  the  individual 
adolescent),  yet,  as  a  race  phenomenon,  adolescence  tomorrow 
will  in  all  essentials  be  like  the  adolescence  of  today;  hence, 
if  the  conclusions  drawn  from  studies  of  this  interesting  and 
baffling  period  are  logical,  the  following  chapters  will  not 
inmiediately  become  antiquated.  Of  at  least  one  thing  the 
author  feels  certain:  much  that  is  here  recommended  will  meet 
with  the  approval  of  many  high-school  boys  and  girls. 

The  reader,  as  well  as  myself,  is  under  obligation  to  my  wife, 
Lillian  Smith  Pringle,  for  her  careful  reading  of  the  proof,  her 
many  helpful  suggestions,  and  her  encouraging  interest  in  the 
success  of  this  book. 

The  book  is  dedicated  to  all  who  are  youthful  in  spirit  and 
enter  sympathetically  and  enthusiastically  into  the  work  and 
play  of  those  in  whose  interest  it  has  been  written  and  to  all 
who  believe  that  the  joyous  days  of  youth  are  rich  in  possi- 
bilities for  future  manhood  and  womanhood. 

NoEMAL,  III.,  1922. 


CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION 

CEAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Methods  of  Solving  Educational  Problems.  .      i 

Solution  of  educational  problems  —  psychological  and 
sociological;  relative  vsdue  of  two  methods;  progress  in 
secondary  education;  function  of  adolescent  psychology; 
understanding  of  youth;  social  administration;  plan 
of  the  book. 


11.  Preadolescence  , 


Periods  of  hirnian  development;  preadolescence  a 
natural  approach  to  adolescence;  physical  character- 
istics; mental  traits;  social  characteristics;  gang  life; 
fads;  games;  non-social  proclivities;  sex;  morality; 
personality;  savagery;  recapitulation  theory;  practical 
conclusions;  health;  stories  and  traditions;  outdoor 
nature;  methods;  twofold  life. 

PART  I  — PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

in.  General  Survey 22 

Significance  of  adolescence;  adolescence  and  primitive 
peoples;  Romans;  knighthood;  churches;  literature 
and  art;  formative  period;  difficulties  and  dangers  in 
study  of  adolescence;  questionnaire  method;  "new 
birth;"  series  of  crises;  personality;  stages  of  de- 
velopment —  early,  middle,  late  adolescence. 

IV.  Physiological  Changes  and  Characteristics     40 

Maturing  of  sex  functions;  signs  of  adolescence; 
growth  —  height,  weight,  bones,  muscles,  heart,  lungs, 
brain;  health;  breathing  and  voice;  diet;  science  and 
common-sense. 

vii 


Viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

V.  Mental  Growth  and  Reconstruction 58 

Physical  maturity  and  mental  growth;  new  attitudes; 
sexual  life;  sex  characters;  charms  and  fetishes, 
migratory  instincts;  development  of  senses;  love; 
thought  awakening,  reverie;  practical  conclusions. 

VI.  Social  Characteristics  and  their  Import.  . .      88 

Social  environment;  adolescents  hetero-centric;  social 
instincts  —  gregariousness,  sympathy,  love  of  approba- 
tion, altruism;  personality;  social  efficiency;  social 
conformity. 

VII.  Moral  Aspects 98 

Adolescent  a  moral  being;  new  wildness;  moral  differ- 
ences; unrest;  criminal  out-croppings;  antisocial  acts 
—  adventures,  truancy,  incorrigibility,  anger,  fighting, 
cruelty,  stealing,  lying;  commercialization  of  adolescent 
nature;  ideals  —  origin,  nature,  struggle;  moral  evolu- 
tion; personal  influence. 


PART  II  — HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

VIII.  Transition    to    the    Secondary    School  — 

Junior  High  School 126 

(i)  Problem  and  its  solution;  (ii)  psychological  basis  of 
junior  high  school;  (iii)  history  of  movement;  (iv) 
definition,  determined  by  nature  of  early  adolescent; 
(v)  curriculum,  subject-matter,  methods,  propositions 
concerning  curriculum,  curriculum  making,  program  of 
studies;  (vi)  methods;  (vii)  teachers;  (viii)  organiza- 
tion, administration,  cost;  (ix)  building,  equipment, 
text-books;  (x)  functions. 

IX.  The  American  High-school  Group 168 

Heterogeneous  nature;  growth;  social  status;  expecta- 
tions of  pupils;  age;  general  intelligence;  advisory 
system;  conferences;  supervised  study. 


CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

X.  The  Curriculum 177 

(i)  Curriculum  the  storm  center,  curriculum  making, 
shifting  ideals,  no  ideal  curriculum;  (ii)  qualifications 
of  curriculum  maker;  (iii)  purpose,  scope,  function, 
responsibility;  (iv)  forces  leading  to  curriculmn  changes, 
new  definitions,  the  trend;  (v)  general  principles  of 
curriculum  making;  (vi)  individual  natures,  social 
outlook.  Committee  of  Ten,  a  rich  and  changing  cur- 
riculum, selective  devices,  history  of  curriculum,  the  cur- 
riculum system,  majors,  minors,  constants;  (vii)  type 
curriculums,  curriculum  differentiation;  (viii)  admin- 
istration, curriculum  thinking. 

XI.  Social  Activities 213 

Functions;  social  education;  organizing  tendencies; 
three  policies  of  faculty;  two  demands;  leadership, 
cooperation,  loyalty,  moral  training;  pleasure;  habits; 
faculty  adviser;  organizations;  dancing,  dramatics;* 
credits. 

XII.  Literary  Societies 232 

Forms  of  expression;  functions;  extemporary  speak- 
ing; subjects;  learning  to  speak;  organization. 

Xm.  Debating 248 

(i)  Brain  development,  new  instincts  and  powers, 
dangers  in  debating;  (ii)  management,  reasoning 
power,  initiative,  judgment,  poise,  concentratioij, 
meaning  of  proof,  fair  play,  leadership,  cooperation, 
effort  required;  (iii)  faculty  adviser,  debating  clubs, 
instruction;  (iv)  interschool  debating,  regulations, 
benefits. 

XIV.  High-School  Journalism  268 

Effort  necessary;  functions;  benefits;  problems;  staff; 
faculty  adviser;  difficulties;  responsibility. 


/ 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XV.  Athletics 277 

(i)  Necessary,  attitudes  of  faculty;  (ii)  psychology, 
influence  of  athletics,  adolescence  and  athletics;  (iii) 
evils  and  dangers  not  inherent;  (iv)  coaching,  faculty 
cooperation;  (v)  suitable  high-school  games;  (vi) 
management,  principal's  duties,  scientific  demands. 

XVI.  Pupil  Finance 302 

Business  training;  temptations  of  adolescents;  a  plan 

and  its  workings. 

XVII.  Assembly 307 

Esprit  de  corps;  demands  of  assembly  programs  — 
interesting,  instructive,  inspiring;  a  social  affair; 
cooperation;  illustrations;   time  and  length  of  period. 

XVIII.  Sex  Education 317 

Difficult  and  delicate  subject;    purpose  of  chapter; 
dangers;    normal  life  processes  emphasized;    methods 
of  appeal;    timing  instruction;    preadolescence;    the 
^  teacher;     the    information    needed;     knowledge    not 

enough;  methods;  school's  responsibility. 

XIX.  Moral  Education 335 

Sex  and  morality;  morality  and  adolescence;  teaching 
morality;  psychological  and  social  aspects;  con- 
science; imagination;  social  origin  of  morals;  condi- 
tions; subconscious  self;  no  spiritual  gifts;  life  and 
character;  moral  ideas  and  ideas  about  morality j 
social-psychological  treatment;  incidental  instruc- 
tion; rules;  punishments;  school  studies;  moral  edu- 
cation. 

XX.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Appeal 352 

Knowledge  of  hmnan  nature;  (i)  appreciation;  (2) 
square  deal;  (3)  honor  and  "honor  systems;"  (4) 
adolescent  code  of  honor;  (5)  unity  of  the  individual; 
(6)  spirit  of  democracy;  (7)  freedom;  (8)  conduct  and 
character;  (9)  loyalty  as  a  motive  —  strongest,  safest, 
and  most  effective;  application;  personal  leadership. 


INTRODUCTION 

In  1840,  the  average  citizen  of  this  country  received  only  208 
days  of  schooling.  In  1870,  he  received  about  582  days,  and 
at  the  present  time  he  receives  something  over  1200  days  of 
schooling.  This  change  has  come  about  because  the  problems 
of  each  succeeding  generation  have  become  more  numerous, 
more  complex,  and  more  difficult  of  solution  than  those  of  pre- 
ceding generation.  Life  was  simple  and  its  problems  easy  of 
solution  in  1840.  In  that  day  and  generation  there  was  no 
discussion  of  capital  and  labor  problems,  of  marketing,  of  sub- 
sidizing a  merchant  marine.  There  were  few  urban  problems. 
One  seldom  heard  any  discussion  about  pure  foods,  the  con- 
gestion in  the  great  cities,  child  labor  legislation.  Certainly, 
there  was  no  talk  about  the  movies  or  the  rights  for  radio  broad- 
casting. Year  after  year  and  decade  after  decade,  society  has 
grown  more  intricate  and  its  organization  more  complex.  The 
natural  concomitant  of  this  increasing  intricacy  and  complexity 
has  been  an  almost  overwhelming  number  of  problems,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  requires  a  higher  trained  intelligence.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  general  level  of  trained  intelligence  among  all  the 
people  has  been  raised  generation  after  generation.  The  very 
safety  and  perpetuity  of  democracy  has  depended  upon  this. 

In  the  earUer  days,  the  high  school  was  regarded  as  a  college 
preparatory  school.  It  is  no  longer  so.  Its  program  has  been 
enlarged  and  its  curriculum  enriched.  It  ministers  to  almost 
every  type  of  mind  and  to  every  class  of  society.  In  1890,  a 
large  share,  in  fact  something  like  90  per  cent  of  the  graduates  of 
our  high  schools,  attended  colleges  and  universities;  to-day  only 
a  minority  of  high  school  graduates  do  so,  yet  the  registration 
in  these  higher  institutions  is  constantly  increasing  because  the 

xi 


m  INTRODUCTION 

number  of  high  schools  and  the  number  of  students  in  them  are 
increasing.  The  high  schools  have,  to  a  certain  extent,  become 
finishing  schools  for  large  numbers  of  students.  They  are  no 
longer  essentially  cultural  in  character.  Courses  more  truly 
social  in  nature  and  with  an  industrial  and  vocational  flavoring 
have  gradually  found  their  way  into  the  secondary  school 
curriculum,  in  response  to  public  pressures  and  pubUc  demands. 
The  modern  high  school  provides  training  for  those  with  a 
scientific  turn  of  mind  as  well  as  for  those  with  an  artistic  turn 
of  mind,  for  men  in  industry  as  well  as  for  a  noble  use  of 
one's  leisure,  for  women  as  well  as  for  men. 

The  emphasis  upon  secondary  school  problems  has  been 
gradually  shifting  from  outside  to  inside  agencies.  With  the 
expansion  of  the  secondary  school  curriculum,  the  raising  of 
the  compulsory  law  age,  and  the  increasing  popularity  of  the 
high  schools,  the  problem  of  inducing  students  to  attend  has 
become  less  and  less  acute.  On  the  other  hand,  the  internal 
problems  have  become  more  acute.  To-day  every  student  of 
secondary  education  views  the  field  from  two  angles:  first, 
from  the  types  of  outcome  that  the  school  should  attempt  to 
secure;  second,  from  the  characteristics  of  the  types  of  mind 
to  be  ministered  to.  Neither  the  outcomes  nor  the  t)^es  of 
mind  are  static.  They  cannot  be  disposed  of  once  for  all.  If 
they  could,  then  society  itself  would  be  dull  and  iminteresting 
and  static;  but  they  do  determine  the  nature  and  character 
of  the  organization  of  the  curriculum  and  of  the  instruction. 

The  limitations  of  human  nature  as  well  as  its  strengths  fur- 
nish the  basis  for  the  technique  of  secondary  education;  the 
pressures  and  sanctions  of  social  life  determine  the  content  of 
the  curriculum.  The  teacher,  who  is  the  primary  agent  in  the 
process,  must  keep  constantly  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  individ- 
ual is  becoming  adjusted  to  the  world  outside  by  being  adjusted 
to  a  constantly  enlarging  series  of  worlds  inside  the  schooL 
The  school  is  a  social  institution  set  aside,  not  merely  to  save 


INTRODUCTION  XUl 

time  and  labor,  but  to  bring  socially  serviceable  materials  face 
to  face  with  the  person  being  educated;  it  is  the  place  where 
he  will  catch  larger  and  larger  glimpses  of  the  world  beyond  in 
which  he  is  to  live  and  work.  Not  everything  that  he  studies 
will  be  immediately  useful,  and  not  everything  will  be  mastered 
without  effort,  but  values  of  life  and  the  principles  of  learning 
will  never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  competent  teacher. 

One  of  the  great  dangers  which  the  secondary  school  suffers 
is  that  its  materials  of  instruction  may  be  so  intellectualized 
when  they  fall  into  the  hands  of  teachers  that  they  will 
be  taught  as  an  end  and  not  as  a  means.  That  danger  is  clearly 
understood  by  the  author  of  this  text.  It  will  be  observed  in 
the  second  part  of  the  text,  where  he  discusses  high-school  prob- 
lems, that  there  are  chapters  devoted  to  social  activities,  liter- 
ary societies,  debating,  high  school  journalism,  athletics,  high 
school  finance,  the  school  assembly,  sex  education,  and  moral 
education.  In  other  words,  he  maintains  that  everything  the 
student  does,  every  experience  he  has,  every  relation  he  estab- 
lishes, every  contact  he  makes,  has  its  educational  implica- 
tions, and  rightly  so.  There  is  no  period  of  life  where  these 
contacts  and  relations  are  more  important  than  the  secondary 
school  period.  This  period  has  been  described  as  the  critical 
period,  as  the  time  of  storm  and  stress.  It  is  a  time  of  great 
physical  and  psychical  changes,  the  importance  of  which  to 
education  has  never  been  clearly  understood. 

Books  have  been  written  on  the  psychology  of  adolescence, 
and  books  have  been  written  on  the  social  aspects  of  secondary 
education,  but  very  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  relate 
these  two  sets  of  facts  in  a  concrete  educational  scheme.  That 
has  been  done  in  this  book  in  a  most  sympathetic  and  rational 
way. 

LOTUS  D.  COFFMAN 

University  of  Minnesota, 
May  i6,  1923, 


ADOLESCENCE  AND 
HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 


INTRODUCTION 

CHAPTER  I 

METHODS   OF   SOLVING   EDUCATIONAL   PROBLEMS 

There  are  two  ways  of  determining  educational  procedure 
concerning  questions  of  either  method  or  material.  One  is  by 
a  careful  study  of  the  nature  and  personal  needs  of  the  one  to 
be  educated;  the  other  is  by  focusing  attention  upon  the  eco- 
nomic and  social  outlook  of  the  one  to  be  educated.  Accord- 
ing to  the  first,  when  methods  of  teaching,  school  administra- 
tion, and  management  of  social  activities  are  under  consider- 
ation, or  when  the  content  of  the  curriculum  is  in  question,  we 
concentrate  upon  the  pupils,  and,  by  a  scientific  and  sympa- 
thetic study  of  their  physical,  mental,  social,  and  moral  char- 
acteristics, try  to  determine  what  method  and  what  subject- 
matter  will  most  strongly  appeal  to  their  interests  and  most 
closely  fit  their  needs;  this  is  the  psychological  mode  of  at- 
tacking educational  problems.  According  to  the  second  way, 
when  matters  pertaining  to  method  and  content  are  to  be  settled, 
we  turn  our  thoughts  toward  the  community  from  which  the 
pupils  come  and  to  which  they  will  return,  and,  by  a  close  and 
exhaustive  study  of  its  nature  and  needs,  attempt  to  learn  what 
social  and  industrial  services  it  will  demand  of  the  pupils  when 
they  leave  school;  this  is  the  sociological  mode  of  solving  edu- 


ADOLESCENCE 


catioixal  prohlems. ',  !the  first  method  of  solution,  when  applied 
to  high-school  jprbbleihs,  trusts  our  increasing  knowledge  of 
adolescence;  and  the  second  depends  upon  our  tightening  grasp 
of  the  fundamental  principles  of  social  economy.  The  first  is 
dominated  by  reverence  for  the  individual's  tastes  and  talents, 
the  second  makes  the  requirements  of  the  civilization  into  which 
the  individual  was  born  the  determining  factors.  One  method 
exalts  individuality  as  the  end  toward  which  all  educational 
efforts  must  tend,  the  other  glorifies  the  composite  spirit  of 
society  and  makes  its  needs  the  end. 

Both  of  these  methods  of  solving  educational  problems  are 
considered  scientific  and  modern.  Each  has  its  disciples,  and 
the  influence  of  one  or  both  is  traceable  in  all  recent  educational 
writing  and  discussion.  Just  now  it  would  appear  that  the 
demands  of  society,  in  the  broader  sense  of  the  term,  are  upper- 
most in  the  minds  of  a  majority  of  educational  experts;  as 
witness,  the  ever  recurring  phrase  "social  efficiency"  and  its 
like,  in  which  it  would  seem  that  this  proposed  aim  of  education 
implies  that  the  schools  are  to  make  the  pupils  efficient  for  the 
sake  of  society.  However,  the  relative  merits  and  validity  of 
these  two  ways  of  determining  educational  procedure  are  not 
under  discussion  here.  Whatever  may  be  their  relative  values 
as  criteria,  the  discussions  and  attempted  solutions  of  high- 
school  problems  which  follow  are  controlled  largely  by  psycho- 
logical considerations.  These  will  certainly  furnish  workable 
and  valid  tests;  if  a  single  viewpoint  is  maintained,  our  study 
of  the  problems  here  considered  will  gain  in  unity. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  thus  far  child  psychology  has  in- 
fluenced the  pedagogy  of  the  elementary  school  much  more 
profoundly  than  adolescent  psychology  has  modified  secondary 
education.  For  this  state  of  affairs  there  are  at  least  two  reas- 
ons: first,  the  psychology  of  adolescence,  although  concerned 
with  the  most  interesting  and  formative  phase  of  human  devel- 
opment, is  not  yet  so  definitely  formulated  as  the  psychology 


EDUCATIONAL  PROBLEMS  3 

of  childhood,  there  being  the  utmost  variance  of  opinion  and 
emphasis  on  many  important  points  respecting  adolescent 
nature,  due  partly,  as  we  shall  see,  to  the  inherent  difficulty 
of  the  subject,  and  partly  to  the  methods  of  study  which  have 
prevailed;  second,  the  field  of  modern  secondary  education 
has  not  yet  been  so  thoroughly  worked  as  that  of  elementary 
education,  the  latter  having  long  possessed  a  considerable  body 
of  experimentally  determined  pedagogical  principles,  which 
have  been  fairly  well  confirmed  by  practice.  In  secondary  edu- 
cation the  pedagogical  outlook  is  unsettled  and  the  lines  are 
still  shifting,  due,  it  seems  to  the  author,  to  the  lack  of  a  psycho- 
logical basis.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  much  light  will 
be  thrown  on  all  high-school  problems  when  we  have  reliable 
information  concerning  the  nature  of  youth;  it  seems  to  be  a 
fundamental  principle  in  our  thinking  to  judge  the  needs  of 
any  institution  or  individual  by  its  nature,  by  the  laws  of  its 
being;  our  remarkable  success  in  dealing  with  plants  and  the 
lower  animals  has  come  from  an  intimate  knowledge  in  each 
case  of  their  life  history.  There  is  full  agreement  that  the  school 
is  for  the  pupil,  then  let  us  study  the  pupil,  and  by  so  doing 
make  the  school  deal  with  him  according  to  his  nature  and 
needs. 

The  question  as  to  what  extent  the  study  of  psychology  func- 
tions in  the  work  of  the  teacher  and  school  administrator  has 
often  been  discussed.  The  answer  to  the  question  would  seem 
to  depend  upon  what  phase  of  psychology  is  meant  and  what 
methods  of  study  are  employed.  If  the  attention  is  focused 
largely  on  the  abstract  principles  of  the  subject,  and  the  meth- 
ods are  deductive  and  introspective,  perhaps  little  direct  help 
will  result.  But  this  is  not  what  is  now  meant  by  the  study  of 
psychology  in  the  modem  schools  of  education.  Educational 
psychology  is  now  applying  the  principle  of  division  of  labor, 
with  a  view  to  securing  the  most  direct  and  first-hand  knowledge 
possible  concerning  each  period  of  child  and  adolescent  develop- 


4  ADOLESCENCE 

ment.  Any  one  who  has  year  after  year  had  the  privilege  of 
seeing  successive  groups  of  adolescent  boys  and  girls,  in  their 
intercourse  with  each  other  and  their  grappling  with  the  usual 
intellectual  demands  of  high-school  work,  show  forth  the  same 
characteristics  and  stages  of  development  as  their  predecessors, 
comes  to  realize  that  he  is  in  the  presence  of  laws  that  must  be 
universal  and  worthy  of  his  serious  attention.  If  this  observa- 
tion of  the  social  and  mental  life  of  adolescents  is  close  and  sym- 
pathetic, and  if  it  is  supplemented  by  all  the  skill  and  methods 
of  research  known  to  modern  science,  there  surely  will  result  a 
body  of  knowledge  and  an  attitude  of  mind  on  the  part  of  the 
observer  that  will  greatly  aid  him  in  his  solution  of  the  many 
urgent  high-school  problems.  A  persistent  effort  by  every 
available  means  to  understand  this  rapidly  changing  period 
will  naturally  give  rise  to  a  deep  interest  and  a  keen  alertness 
that  must  prove  most  helpful  in  discovering  individual  differ- 
ences and  needs  as  well  as  group  characteristics  and  require- 
ments. The  student  of  adolescent  nature  soon  becomes  aware 
of  the  close  relation  and  interaction  between  individual  life  in 
its  integrity  of  development  and  social  life,  which  is  so  necessary 
to  this  individual  development;  without  this  knowledge  and 
the  consequent  insight,  one  would  be  helpless  in  dealing  with 
many  of  the  social  problems  involved  in  the  management  of  a 
really  modern  high  school;  and  one  who  knows  youth  is  con- 
scious of  a  fortunate  and  helpful  concurrence  between  the  de- 
mands and  ideals  of  the  individual  and  of  the  social  life.  More- 
over, of  the  evolving  of  new  theories,  the  proposing  of  new  sub- 
jects for  the  curriculum,  and  the  devising  of  new  methods  there 
is  no  end;  the  conscientious  student  of  secondary  education  is 
much  in  need  of  safe  criteria  by  which  to  judge  the  educational 
novelties  as  they  appear.  J.  J.  Findlay,  one  of  the  highest 
educational  authorities  in  England,  says,  "Let  no  one  suppose 
that  the  study  of  adolescence  can  be  left  out  of  account  in 
judging  of  the  worth  of  current  systems  of  secondary  education." 


EDUCATIONAL  PROBLEMS  5 

However,  it  must  not  be  expected  that  a  knowledge  of  adol- 
escence will  furnish  ready-made  rules  of  procedure;  there  must 
come  between  this  knowledge  and  the  successful  management 
of  youth  the  intervention  of  an  inventive  and  sympathetic 
mind.  As  the  late  Professor  Royce  of  Harvard  pointed  out 
many  years  ago,  the  greatest  benefit  that  will  come  from  such 
study  is  the  psychological  spirit  and  habit  of  mind,  which  lead 
to  a  constant  and  intelligent  observation  of  the  mental  and 
social  life  of  the  pupils  and  a  scientific  reasoning  from  the  data 
thus  obtained.  The  whole  on-rushing  life  of  youth  should 
supply  the  most  reliable  commentary  on  the  many  high-school 
problems  as  they  arise. 

The  problems  connected  with  high-school  teaching  and  man- 
agement have  been  variously  classified.  There  is  a  class  of 
problems  that  are  practically  peculiar  to  the  modem  high  school, 
which  may  be  called  problems  in  "social  administration;" 
they  have  come  into  prominence  through  our  better  knowledge 
of  the  close  relation  between  the  social  life  of  the  adolescent  and 
his  mental  and  moral  life,  and  consequently  through  the  grow- 
ing conviction  that  secondary  education  in  the  last  analysis  is 
a  social  enterprise.  These  problems  have  arisen  in  connection 
with  the  social  aspects  of  the  curriculum  and  its  administration 
and  with  the  many  and  varied  social  activities  of  the  modem 
high  school.  They  are  neither  teaching  nor  administrative 
problems  in  the  broadest  sense;  but  they  are  vital  problems, 
for  they  have  to  do  with  the  individual  and  social  life  of  every 
pupil,  and  on  their  wise  solution  will  depend  in  a  large  measure 
the  degree  of  social  efficiency  with  which  we  are  able  to  endow 
our  pupils.  Like  other  problems,  their  solution  should  be  based 
on  scientific  knowledge;  that  is,  their  solution  should  rest  on 
the  fundamental  facts  thus  far  ascertained  and  the  underl)dng 
principles  thus  far  evolved  concerning  the  nature  of  adoles- 
cence. This  means,  of  course,  parting  company,  as  far  as  may 
be,  with   dogma   and   many    traditions   and   customs;   and 


6  ADOLESCENCE 

this  in  itself  is  a  peculiar  and  often  difficult  process,  for  many 
worthy  intellectual  and  humanitarian  movements  have  left 
their  impress  on  secondary  education.  However,  the  leaders  of 
educational  thought  are  generally  of  the  opinion  that  the  feel- 
ing of  unrest  concerning  all  phases  of  high-school  activity 
should  be  interpreted  as  a  call  to  advance  along  all  lines;  Dr. 
Judd  believes  that  "the  time  is  ripe  to  essay  the  comprehensive 
task"  of  applying  psychology  to  "all  high-school  problems," 
particularly  the  special  psychology  of  adolescence. 

The  foregoing  statements  suggest  the  plan  of  this  book.  The 
chapters  included  in  Part  I  furnish  a  brief  and  somewhat  com- 
plete account  of  what  is  now  generally  believed  concerning  the 
psychology  of  adolescence;  Part  II  is  an  attempt  to  deal  with 
various  important  high-school  problems,  mostly  of  a  social 
nature,  in  the  light  of  our  knowledge  of  adolescence.  The  as- 
sumption is  that  the  psychology  of  the  special  problem  in  each 
case  is  based  upon  and  merged  into  the  psychology  of  the  pu- 
pils. 


CHAPTER  n 
PREADOLESCENCE 

Even  a  cursory  survey  of  the  entire  life  history  of  any  indi- 
vidual makes  us  aware  of  how  greatly  the  different  periods  of 
life  differ  from  one  another.  It  is  true  that  we  expect  to  find 
the  later  stretches  of  life's  span  more  quiescent,  more  static, 
comparatively  fixed  and  settled;  even  ten  years  at  this  end  of 
life  may  seemingly  bring  slight  change  of  any  kind.  But, 
when  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  other  periods  of  the  individ- 
ual's growth  and  development,  we  find  all  is  changing  and  chang- 
ing so  rapidly  that  at  times  it  appears  almost  impossible  to 
fijc  upon  any  definite  characteristics  and  say  that  these  consti- 
tute the  real  individual  under  consideration;  all  is  flux;  phys- 
ical features  take  on  new  shape  and  proportions,  and  the  men- 
tal and  moral  movements  are  so  rapid  that  we  have  at  times 
little  less  than  continuous  turmoil.  All  here  is  dynamic.  The 
countless  currents  of  life  are  setting,  and  the  full  nature  and 
trend  of  the  complex  stream  is  not  yet  determined. 

Since  so  much  of  this  book  is  devoted  to  one  of  these  rapidly 
developing  periods  of  life,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  try  to 
give  this  period  a  setting.  It  will  be  helpful  to  pause  and  fo- 
cus attention  for  a  short  time  upon  that  most  interesting  and 
unique  period  just  preceding  adolescence.  This  will  form  a 
natural  and  helpful  approach  to  our  study  of  adolescence;  the 
purpose  of  this  chapter,  therefore,  is  to  give  a  brief  account  of 
the  characteristics,  tendencies,  and  educational  possibilities  of 
that  period  of  childhood  extending  from  the  ages  of  eight  or 
nine  to  twelve  and  known  generally  as  preadolescence.  Joseph 
Lee  has  well  named  it  the  Big  Injun  Age. 

7 


8  ADOLESCENCE 

This  period  of  childhood  is  characterized  by  the  greatest 
physical  activities,  and  these  activities  are  the  most  varied; 
the  waking  moments  are  filled  with  almost  continuous  move- 
ment, and  wiggling  seems  to  be  the  law  of  living.  Health  is 
about  at  its  best.  Physical  growth  is  slower  now  than  at  any 
other  time  during  the  first  eighteen  or  twenty  years;  beginning 
with  birth,  the  rate  of  growth  rapidly  decreases  until  preadoles- 
cence,  when  it  sometimes  almost  stops.  Thus  it  is  a  period 
of  much  stability,  due  in  part  at  least  to  relative  balance  be- 
tween assimilation  and  expenditure;  and  it  is  a  time  when  the 
individual  shows  nearly  perfect  adaptation  to  environment. 
The  boys  and  girls  are  now  able  to  resist  all  kinds  of  unfavorable 
conditions;  their  power  of  endurance  is  great;  both  boys  and 
girls  are  at  the  height  of  their  physical  buoyancy;  and  vitality 
according  to  all  tests  runs  high.  And,  strange  to  say,  although 
not  fully  developed,  the  brain  reaches  at  the  end  of  this  period 
nearly  its  full  size  and  weight.  Thus  we  have  during  this  period 
of  preadolescence  a  being  wonderfully  efficient,  when  judged 
on  a  purely  physical  basis,  perhaps  more  nearly  perfect  in  the 
way  it  functions  and  rapidly  adjusts  itself  to  new  conditions 
than  at  any  other  time  of  life. 

The  story  on  the  mental  side  is  also  interesting.  The  power 
of  perception  is  remarkably  acute;  and  the  child,  especially 
the  boy,  is  so  bent  on  using  this  power  that  books  are  readily  put 
aside  and  reading  often  becomes  very  distasteful.  At  this  time 
the  poet's  injunction,  "away  to  the  fields,"  meets  with  eager 
response.  A  boy  sometimes  can  take  you  to  a  hundred  birds' 
nests,  and  of  these  he  has  a  more  intimate  and  vital  knowledge 
than  many  a  bookworm  has  of  his  books.  A  study  of  this 
period  shows  that  memory  is  quick,  the  percentage  of  error  is 
small,  and  facts  and  impressions  are  lasting.  As  distinguished 
from  the  previous  four  years  of  the  child's  life,  it  is  an  age  of 
prose.  The  preadolescent  is  not  interested  in  fairies  or  their 
doings;  and  the  many  make-believe  activities  of  the  previous 


PREADOLESCENCE  9 

dramatic  period  are  suddenly  and  vigorously  put  aside.  The 
automatic  powers  are  at  their  best,  the  reactions  are  immediate. 
TXhus  it  is  the  golden  age  for  drill  and  discipline. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  the  elements  of  knowledge,  which  the 
preadolescent  so  rapidly  and  willingly  acquires,  are  more  or 
less  without  content  to  him  while  he  is  acquiring  them,  with 
the  important  exception  of  what  he  gets  from  outdoor  nature 
and  what  comes  to  him  in  the  form  of  suitable  story. 

Although  he  is  not  at  all  poetical,  his  visual  imagination  is 
vivid  and  grasps  its  object  firmly.  Reason  is  only  slightly  de- 
veloped, in  many  cases  little  more  than  foreshadowed.  Real 
insight  and  understanding  in  the  narrow  sense  are  only  begin- 
ning. The  preadolescent  gets  much  pleasure  from  collecting  all 
kinds  of  objects  (many  of  them  entirely  useless)  and  swapping 
them  with  other  collectors  of  his  kind.  The  collecting  is  rarely 
in  any  sense  scientific,  but  seems  to  be  done  merely  to  satisfy 
the  desire  for  possession;  all  observers  are  familiar  with  the  bulg- 
ing pockets  of  the  grammar-school  boy.  The  interest  in  these 
collections  and  the  value  placed  upon  them  are  both,  of  course, 
very  transient.  The  interest  of  the  child  in  mechanical  puzzles 
culminates  at  about  eleven  years.  Thus  the  mental  life  of 
the  preadolescent  is  lived  on  a  concrete  basis;  he  is  interested 
in  things  tangible  and  deals  successfully  with  them  if  he  finds 
them  in  his  immediate  environment.  Much  of  this  success 
is  doubtless  due  to  his  ready  power  of  imitation;  girls  are 
more  imitative  and  are  less  general  in  their  interests  than 
boys. 

Much  of  the  preadolescent's  keen  objective  interest  doubtless 
arises  from  the  feeling  that  he  must  ''bang  himself  up  against 
the  world,"  as  some  one  has  expressed  it,  "and  see  what  it  and 
he  himself  is  made  of ; "  in  fact  it  is  the  only  way  he  can  gain  a 
knowledge  of  himself  and  his  surroundings,  and  knowledge  he 
must  have.  Moreover,  he  is  satisfied  if  he  can  learn  merely 
how  the  world  runs;  later  he  will  philosophize  about  the  run- 


lO  ADOLESCENCE 

ning;  now  the  facts  are  sufficient,  later  he  will  demand  the 
theories  which  organize  the  facts. 

The  social  characteristics  of  this  period  differ  in  a  very  marked 
way  from  the  period  that  follows.  Life  at  this  time  is  naturally 
and  decidedly  individualistic.  The  preadolescent  is  ego-centric, 
always  looking  out  for  "number  one;"  he  is  likely  to  be  un- 
sympathetic and  regardless  of  others;  with  him  self-preserva- 
tion is,  indeed,  the  first  law  of  nature.  The  altruistic  symp- 
toms which  he  may  show  are,  when  really  understood,  largely 
imitative.  It  is  true  that  the  preadolescent  develops  a  life 
of  his  own  outside  of  the  home  circle.  His  social  tendencies 
are  shown  in  the  formation  of  the  gang,  in  his  adherence  to 
its  laws,  and  in  conforming  to  its  spirit.  But  in  all  this  he  is 
really  self-centered;  gang  life  and  spirit  appeal  to  him  because 
of  what  they  bring  to  him  in  personal  satisfaction;  and  one 
gang  is  readily  and  unsentimentally  exchanged  for  another 
when  circumstances  favor.  This  is  the  tribal  period  of  boyhood 
and  the  gang  is  a  primitive  democracy,  whose  principles  and 
purposes  must  be  observed  by  the  members;  and,  although  his 
membership  is  readily  transferred  to  another  gang,  the  boy  is 
remarkably  loyal  to  the  interests  and  purposes  of  the  gang  as 
long  as  these  obtain.  The  educative  influences  of  the  gang  are 
indispensable  to  virile  development;  it  is  here  that  the  boy 
gains  the  masculine  viewpoint,  which  he  cannot  easily  get 
from  his  home  life,  at  least  not  from  his  nurse  or  mother;  here 
to  a  certain  degree  his  selfishness  will  be  mitigated,  when  the 
give-and-take  methods  and  customs  of  this  tribal  institution 
are  brought  to  bear  upon  his  natural  egotism;  it  is  very  whole- 
some and  necessary  to  learn  through  pretty  lively  contact  the 
personal  values  and  talents  of  other  boys. 

The  tendency  to  indulge  in  short-lived  fads  and  the  strength 
of  mere  gang  spirit  are  vividly  portrayed  in  Robert  Louis  Ste- 
venson's account  of  the  ''Lantern-Bearers;"    the  interest  and 


PREADOLESCENCE  II 

value,  as  illustrative  of  our  theme,  are  sufficient  to  warrant  quot- 
ing certain  passages  from  this  delightful  essay. 

"  Toward  the  end  of  September,  when  school  time  was  draw- 
ing near,  and  the  nights  were  already  black,  we  would  begin 
to  sally  from  our  respective  villas,  each  equipped  with  a  tin 
bull's-eye  lantern.  The  thing  was  so  well  known  that  it  had 
worn  a  rut  in  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain;  and  the  grocers, 
about  the  due  time,  began  to  garnish  their  windows  with  our 
particular  brand  of  luminary.  We  wore  them  buckled  to  the 
waist  upon  a  cricket  belt,  and  over  them,  such  was  the  rigor  of 
the  game,  a  buttoned  top-coat.  They  smelled  noisomely  of 
blistered  tin.  They  never  burned  aright,  though  they  would 
always  bum  our  fingers.  Their  use  was  naught,  the  pleasure 
of  them  merely  fanciful,  and  yet  a  boy  with  a  bull's-eye  under 
his  top-coat  asked  for  nothing  more.  The  fishermen  used  lan- 
terns about  their  boats,  and  it  was  from  them,  I  suppose,  that 
we  had  got  the  hint;  but  theirs  were  not  bull's-eyes,  nor  did 
we  ever  play  at  being  fishermen.  The  police  carried  them  at 
their  belts,  and  we  had  plainly  copied  them  in  that;  yet  we 
did  not  pretend  to  be  policemen.  Burglars,  indeed,  we  may 
have  had  some  haunting  thought  of;  and  we  had  certainly  an 
eye  to  past  ages  when  lanterns  were  more  common,  and  to 
certain  story-books  in  which  we  had  found  them  to  figure  very 
largely.  But  take  it  for  all  in  all,  the  pleasure  of  the  thing  was 
substantive;  and  to  be  a  boy  with  a  bull's-eye  under  his  top- 
coat was  good  enough  for  us. 

"When  two  of  these  asses  met,  there  would  be  an  anxious 
'Have  you  got  your  lantern?'  and  a  gratified  'Yes!'  That  was 
the  shibboleth,  and  very  needful,  too;  for,  as  it  was  the  rule 
to  keep  our  glory  contained,  none  could  recognize  a  lantern- 
bearer  unless  (like  the  polecat)  by  the  smell.  Four  or  five 
would  sometimes  climb  into  the  belly  of  a  ten-man  lugger,  with 
nothing  but  the  thwarts  above  them,  —  for  the  cabin  was  usu- 
ally locked, —  or  choose  out  some  hollow  of  the  links  where  the 


12  ADOLESCENCE 

wind  might  whistle  overhead.  Then  the  coats  would  be  unbut- 
toned, and  the  bull's-eyes  discovered;  and  the  chequering  glim- 
mer, under  the  huge,  windy  hall  of  night,  and  cheered  by  a  rich 
steam  of  toasting  tinware,  these  fortunate  young  gentlemen 
would  crouch  together  in  the  cold  sand  of  the  links,  or  on  scaly 
bilges  of  the  fishing-boat,  and  delight  them  with  inappropriate 
talk.  Woe  is  me  that  I  cannot  give  some  specimens!  •  •  •  -But 
the  talk  was  but  a  condiment,  and  these  gatherings  them- 
selves only  accidents  in  the  career  of  the  lantern-bearer." 

Stevenson  goes  on  to  say  that  the  boys  were  very  cold,  spat 
upon  by  flurries  of  rain,  and  drearily  surrounded;  and  their 
talk  was  silly  and  indecent.  "To  the  eye  of  the  observer  they 
are  wet  and  cold  and  drearily  surrounded;  but  ask  themselves, 
and  they  are  in  the  heaven  of  a  recondite  pleasure,  the  ground 
of  which  is  an  ill-smelling  lantern." 

These  paragraphs  from  Stevenson  describe  with  spirit  and 
sympathy  several  boyhood  characteristics  and  joys.  From. the 
sketch  we  understand  that  the  preadolescent  revels  in  the  life 
and  the  mysterious  joys  of  his  gang;  we  are  made  to  feel  the 
satisfaction  which  comes  to  him  from  some  worthless  possession 
held  in  esteem  by  his  congenial  comrades;  we  learn  of  his  ten- 
dency to  imitate  and  take  suggestions  from  his  immediate 
surroundings,  and  of  the  influence  which  naturally  comes  to 
him  from  certain  story-books  suitable  to  his  needs;  we  are 
reminded  of  his  disregard  for  external  discomfort  if  his  pur- 
poses are  being  fulfilled;  and  withal  we  are  not  allowed  to 
forget  his  proneness  to  silly  and  vulgar  talk.  Only  a  man  who 
was  once  a  real  boy  and  retained  undimmed  the  memory  of 
his  boyhood  feelings  and  experiences  could  give  us  this  vivid 
picture  of  the  gang  and  its  life. 

A  study  of  the  games  played  during  this  period  throws  much 
light  on  the  social  characteristics.  These  are  mostly  individ- 
ualistic and  competitive;  it  is  only  toward  the  end  of  the  period 
that  truly  cooperative  games  begin  to  make  their  appeal;  the 


PREADOLESCENCE  I3 

games  must  give  opportunity  for  displaying  individual  feats. 
Girls  are  less  interested  in  cooperative  games  than  boys;  they 
are  more  attracted  by  games  involving  imitation  and  chance. 
Because  of  its  connection  with  the  recapitulation  theory,  it 
is  significant  to  note  that  the  interest  in  the  universal  game  of 
hide-and-seek  culminates  at  ten,  then  suddenly  drops. 

The  simply  organized  clubs  and  societies,  which  the  preadoles- 
cent  enjoys  for  a  brief  time,  are  usually  for  athletics,  for  adven- 
ture, or  for  predatory  purposes,  and  all  prompted  by  the  urgent 
demand  for  sensori-motor  activity.  iyi_clubs^nd  organizations 
of  this  time  are  especially  lacking  in  stability,  unless  their  wel- 
fare is  carefully  guarded  by  an  adult  who  understands  the  nature 
and  the  needs  of  their  members;  this  one  might  expect  from 
the  self -centered  and  self-assertive  nature  of  preadolescents; 
misunderstandings  and  quarrels  are  almost  inevitable. 

The  non-social  proclivities  of  this  period  are  often  exhibited 
in  a  marked  way  by  the  almost  utter  indifference  to  personal 
appearance;  a  dirty  face  and  uncombed  hair  do  not  usually 
disturb  the  prevailing  happiness  of  this  interesting  young  bar- 
barian, for  he  is  living  out  a  period  of  the  race's  history  when 
personal  comfort  and  welfare  controlled  more  than  personal 
appearance.  He  does  not  care  very  much  what  the  rest  of 
the  world  thinks  of  him.  Here  follows  the  vigorous  statement 
of  Prof.  George  H.  Palmer:  — 

"The  child  is  charmingly  self -centered.  The  world  and  its 
ordered  goings  he  notices  merely  as  ministering  to  his  desires. 
Nothing  but  what  he  wishes,  and  wishes  just  now,  is  important. 
He  relates  all  this  but  little  to  the  wishes  of  other  people,  to  the 
inherent  fixities  of  things,  to  his  own  future  states,  to  whether 
one  wish  is  compatible  with  another.  His  immediate  mood  is 
everything.  Of  any  difference  between  what  is  whimsical  or 
momentary  and  what  is  rational  and  permanent  he  is  oblivious." 

The  preadolescent  is  fundamentally  most  unlike  the  adoles- 
cent in  his  slight  appreciation  of  sexual  difference;  this  differ- 


14  ADOLESCENCE 

ence  appears  to  have  little  significance,  except  that  each  gepera 
ally  prefers  to  associate  with  his  own  sex;  and  in  the  case  ot 
the  boy  he  seems  sometimes  rather  to  despise  the  girls  of  his 
own  age.  At  any  rate,  if  the  girls  and  boys  join  in  games  or 
contests,  it  must  be  on  an  equal  footing,  and  respect  for  the 
opposite  sex  will  come  only  from  proven  skill  or  agility  of  some 
kind.  Two  or  three  years  later  all  this  is  changed;  sex  con- 
sciousness will  be  apparent  in  all  social  arrangements. 

The  preadolescent  is  neither  moral  nor  immoral  in  the  true 
sense  of  these  terms;  he  may  be  better  described  as  unmoral; 
at  least,  his  moral  ideals  are  negative  rather  than  positive; 
much  of  his  seeming  morality  results  from  imitation  or  habit; 
thus  it  appears  he  is  devoid  of  true  morality.  The  boy  whose 
habitual  conduct  is  such  that  people  say,  "What  a  good  child!'* 
is  not  unlike  a  well  trained  animal;  he  has  learned  in  a  some- 
what mechanical  way  to  live  a  life  of  inhibitions  (which,  by 
the  way,  is  very  unnatural  to  a  healthy,  normal  boy) ;  the  moral 
ideas  which  he  appears  to  embody  have  not  been  woven  into 
the  web  of  his  life;  he  has  simply  learned  well  his  parts  and  he 
does  not  mistake  his  cues.  It  is  only  after  he  enters  adolescence 
that  he  develops  that  sense  of  values  which  makes  possible 
truly  moral  living.  Since  the  values  are  determined  largely 
by  the  effect  of  conduct  on  other  people,  he  has  little  means  of 
acquiring  a  sense  of  them;  for,  as  we  have  seen,  it  is  not  in 
his  nature  to  think  much  about  other  people. 

Unless  the  preadolescent  is  naturally  of  a  passive  and  timid 
disposition  and  has  yielded  more  or  less  completely  to  the  moral 
code  which  well-meaning  parents  and  teachers  have  thrust 
upon  him,  and  thus  does  his  moral  tricks  successfully,  we  are 
all  aware  that  there  are  trying  times  awaiting  those  who  are 
responsible  for  his  conduct  and  welfare.  There  is  a  crassness, 
a_selfishness,  and  a  thoughtlessness  peculiar  to  this  age  between 
childhood  and  youth,  which,  unless  it  is  sympathetically  rec- 
ognized and  understood,  may  be  extremely  annoying;    but 


PREADOLESCENCE  15 

few  need  be  told  this,  for  the  youngster  of  the  age  under  con- 
sideration seems,  by  reason  of  his  insatiable  curiosity  and  his 
persistent  assertiveness,  to  be  everywhere  present.  All  this 
frequently  applies  to  girls  as  well  as  boys.  One  pleasing  young 
lady  of  nineteen  speaks  of  herself  as  follows:  "During  the  self- 
assertive  period  I  must  have  been  a  distinctly  obnoxious  young- 
ster. I  knew  it  all,  I  wanted  to  do  what  the  boys  did,  I  was 
noisy,  slangy,  and  rude.  This  always  surprises  me  in  retro- 
spect, for  on  the  whole  J  think  I  was  a  rather  quiet  and  sensitive 
child.  But  at  that  time  nothing  was  worth  while  but  muscle, 
endurance,  speed,  perfection  of  body  in  all  sorts  of  tests  of 
prowess  and  skill." 

The  elements  of  the  preadolescent's  personality  are  his  largely 
by  inheritance;  although  few  in  number,  they  are  well  organ- 
ized on  a  simple  plan,  have  much  momentum,  and  are  effective. 
The  primitive  elements  of  personality  are  easily  distinguishable 
from  the  later  elements  developed  during  adolescence,  which 
are  much  further-reaching  and  more  subtile.  His  sympathy, 
capacity  for  loving,  as  well  as  his  faculty  for  esthetic  enjoyment, 
are  but  slightly  developed.  Real  sentiment  and  true  religion 
are  best  described  as  nascent.  But  we  must  not  expect  to 
find  in  the  budding  religion,  which  may  appear  at  this  time, 
anything  closely  equivalent  to  what  we  call  religion  in  the  adult; 
in  this,  as  in  other  matters,  we  cannot  successfully  transplant 
our  adult  variety. 

The  boy  from  eight  to  twelve  delights,  when  the  opportunity 
is  given,  in  all  forms  of  savagery,  hunting,  fishing,  roving,  and 
fighting;  tribal  and  predatory  proclivities  are  sometimes  very 
marked.  And  we  must  be  neither  surprised  nor  discouraged 
if  we  discover  considerable  barbaric  cruelty  in  the  individual 
who  is  now  living  over  again  the  barbarism  of  his  race.  It  is 
certainly  unfortunate  both  for  the  happiness  of  the  boy  and  the 
welfare  of  the  future  man  when  the  deep-seated  instincts  that 
prompt  him  to  revel  in  idleness  and  savagery  are  not  allowed 


l6  ADOLESCENCE 

some  free  scope.  Rousseau  understood  the  preadolescent  and 
stated  his  case  vigorously  when  he  urged  that  he  be  left  to  his 
natural  impulses,  a  recommendation  rather  inconvenient  under 
modern  conditions  for  the  adults  with  whom  our  young  tribes- 
man chances  to  be  associated.  Whatever  we  may  think  of 
Rousseau's  advice,  there  is  the  utmost  certainty  that  we  cannot 
wisely  attempt  to  make  ''nice  little  men  out  of  noisy,  boister- 
ous boys." 

Moreover,  our  young  brave  spends  little  time  considering 
the  ulterior  motives  of  the  people  around  him;  on  the  other 
hand,  he  judges  action  by  actual  results,  and  especially  by  the 
way  it  affects  him  and  his  happiness;  he  is  incapable  of  the  fine 
discriminations  in  these  matters  which  are  so  characteristic  of 
the  adolescent;  "  the  present  only  touches"  him. 

For  generations  immemorial,  teachers,  mothers,  and  maiden 
aunts,  as  well  as  men  (who  ought  to  understand)  have  been 
wont  to  ask  why  boys  need  to  act  so,  why  they  are  so  rude,  so 
noisy,  so  blustering,  so  cruel,  so  disagreeable  generally.  These 
questions  and  their  like  can  be  answered  in  three  words  if  tech- 
nical terms  are  allowed.  "Ontogenesis  recapitulates  phylo- 
genesis." This  is  Heckel's  scientific  way  of  saying  that  the 
individual  during  his  life  repeats  the  history  of  his  race.  This 
is  sometimes  known  as  the  "recapitulation"  theory;  and  some- 
times it  is  referred  to  as  the  "culture  epochs"  theory.  No  one 
doubts  that  mankind  has  had  a  long  and  strange  struggle  in 
its  progress  from  savagery  up  to  civilization;  but  it  is  only 
in  recent  years  that  we  have  come  to  recognize  the  same  struggle 
going  on  in  the  individual.  The  racial  prototypes  of  the  differ- 
ent periods  of  the  individual  are  classified  as  pre-historic,  patri- 
archal, tribal,  feudal  with  absolute  monarchy,  revolutionary 
with  constitutional  monarchy,  and  republic  or  self-governing. 
The  parallels  to  these  periods  have  been  pretty  carefully  identi- 
fied in  the  individual  and  are  respectively,  infancy,  childhood, 
preadolescence  (boyhood),  early  adolescence,  middle  adolescence, 


PREADOLESCENCE  I7 

and  late  adolescence.  Thus  we  have  a  simple  answer  to  the 
questions  concerning  boyhood,  which  have  so  long  troubled 
fond  parents  and  teachers;  the  boy  has  inherited  the  instincts, 
the  feelings,  and  the  experiences  of  primitive  man,  and  is  rap- 
idly repeating  in  his  way  the  stages  of  progress  through  which 
his  uncultured  and  barbaric  ancestors  have  passed.  Why  should 
he  not  revel  in  the  comradeship  and  rough-house  activities  of 
the  gang,  whose  racial  prototype  was  the  council  of  braves? 
Why  should  he  not  be  noisy,  dirty,  selfish,  and  cruel?  Why 
should  we  not  expect  him  to  fight  and  settle  some  of  his  griev- 
ances as  did  his  barbaric  ancestors?  If  this  is  natural  and 
hence  necessary  to  the  nurture  and  development  of  the  preado- 
lescent,  are  we  going  to  lose  our  patience  or  become  discouraged 
with  the  boy  who  shows  these  traits,  which  from  our  viewpoint 
are  sometimes  so  disturbing?  Prof.  G.  W.  Fiske  of  Oberlin 
considers  the  matter  otherwise;  he  says,  "My  reverence  for 
the  boy  is  due  not  only  to  the  wonderful  possibilities  rolled 
up  in  him  by  the  divine  involution,  but  also  to  the  marvelous 
heredity  which  he  rediscovers  to  us  through  his  rehearsal  of 
the  divine  evolution." 

In  the  light  of  what  has  been  said  concerning  all  these  pre- 
adolescent  characteristics,  what  are  the  practical  conclusions? 
In  part  they  are  as  follows:  — 

The  natural  impulses  can  and  should  be  given  considerable 
scope;  and  the  untamed  instincts  must  not  be  completely  re- 
pressed; for  it  has  been  shown  that,  if  this  repression  occurs 
when  the  instincts  first  normally  appear,  there  may  result  "a 
later  outcropping  of  belated  instincts"  in  manhood  or  woman- 
hood, "with  their  foolish  train  of  moral  and  social  anachro- 
nisms;" and  further,  the  many  wholesome  educative  influences 
which  come  from  normal  preadolescent  activities  will  certainly 
be  lost.  This  does  not  in  the  least  suggest  a  lack  of  control; 
on  the  contrary,  firm  and  sympathetic  handling  is  surely  needed 
now  as  much  as  at  any  other  time  in  life. 


l8  ADOLESCENCE 

If  health  is  to  be  kept  at  the  high  tide  which  is  due  at  this 
time,  there  must  be  much  vigorous  exercise  for  the  large  muscles 
of  the  body  and  limbs,  the  hill-climbing  and  tree-climbing  mus- 
cles. It  is  only  in  this  way  that  the  untoward  influences  of 
the  schoolroom  can  be  rendered  harmless;  the  occupations  of 
the  schools  call  for  the  use  of  the  small  muscles,  those  that 
"wag  the  tongue"  and  move  the  pen. 

The  tastes  at  this  time,  which  are  strong  because  instinctive, 
must  be  satisfied,  at  least  vicariously;  for  these  tastes  are  crav- 
ings, demanding  the  recapitulation  of  ancestral  experiences, 
echoes  of  a  remote  past  insisting  upon  being  heard.  This  can 
be  done  by  furnishing  tales  of  adventure,  wholesome  traditions 
containing  stories  of  the  early  heroes  of  the  world,  and  history 
which  can  be  made  to  teach  the  primitive  virtues  of  the  ancient 
peoples.  Perhaps  best  of  all  for  this  purpose  are  the  stories 
and  heroes  of  the  Old  Testament,  whose  oriental  pomp  and  pag- 
eantry always  make  a  strong  appeal;  the  stories  of  Joseph  and 
of  David  are  favorites.  Interest  in  these  Bible  stories  culmi- 
nates at  eleven.  The  educational  value  of  this  material,  judged 
by  the  way  it  fixes  and  holds  the  interest  of  the  preadolescent,  is 
too  great  to  be  neglected.  Moreover,  unlike  much  of  the  ma- 
terial that  must  be  included  in  the  rudiments  of  an  education, 
the  early  histories,  traditions,  and  biographies  have  for  boys 
and  girls,  when  properly  presented,  real  content;  this  is  true, 
because  the  incidents  and  ideals  often  come  down  from  the 
period  of  the  world's  history  which  the  preadolescents  are  try- 
ing to  repeat,  because  children  at  this  age  have  remarkable 
powers  of  visualization,  and  because  young  people  are  always 
interested  in  stories  as  such.  And  further,  there  is  httle  doubt 
that  a  free  use  of  this  material  at  this  age  is  a  pretty  good  safe- 
guard against  precocity,  an  afiliction  which  modem  arrange- 
ments frequently  foster. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  nature,  in  all  the  features  of  which 
the  preadolescents  delight  to  revel, —  the  fields,  the  hills,  the 


PREADOLESCENCE  19 

forests,  the  animals,  and  especially  the  water.  The  call  to 
them  is, 

"Come  forth  into  the  light  of  things, 
Let  Nature  be  your  teacher." 

Stories  and  nature  constitute  the  two  staples  in  their  education, 
for  to  these  they  seem  to  be  indigenous.  The  materials  which 
nature  and  stories  furnish  have  immediate  educational  value, 
for,  as  noted  above,  they  have  real  content  for  the  child. 

But  the  preadolescent  is  a  candidate  for  the  higher  qualities 
and  planes  of  living  which  a  long  race-history  has  developed, 
hence  much  preparatory  work  must  be  done;  and  this  is  the 
golden  age  for  storing  up  the  countless  elements  of  knowledge, 
even  if  they  meet  with  little  inner  response;  for  memory  is 
quick  and  lasting,  and  children  at  this  age  do  not  resent  repeti- 
tion and  drill.  In  like  manner  it  is  the  period  for  external  and 
mechanical  training;  thus  the  special  forms  of  motor  activity 
requiring  either  exactness  or  grace  must  not  be  neglected  if  the 
best  results  are  to  be  realized.  These  include  dancing,  writing, 
music,  drawing,  and  the  other  activities  where  physical  skill  is 
indispensable.  In  brief,  this  is  the  time  for  mastering  the  tools 
of  education. 

As  to  method,  the  statement  sounds  unpedagogical:  much 
of  the  instruction  may  be  dogmatic  and  authoritative,  and  often, 
to  get  the  best  results,  the  methods  must  be  mechanical.  It 
is  not  profitable  always  to  try  to  appeal  to  the  higher  reasoning 
powers.  Incitement  and  insistence  on  the  part  of  somebody  is 
needed.  So  far  as  many  of  the  fundamentals  are  concerned, 
it  is  a  case  of  drill  and  inculcation  rather  than  true  teaching. 
Duty  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  consists  largely  in  habitual  and 
prompt  obedience;  for,  in  giving  lodgement  to  the  fundamen- 
tals of  knowledge,  it  is  not  practical  to  coquet  with  the  child's 
likes  and  dislikes. 

The  foregoing  pages  should  make  it  clear  that,  when  we  are 
working  as  parent,  teacher,  or  leader  in  behalf  of  the  welfare 


20  ADOLESCENCE 

of  the  preadolescent,  we  are  dealing  not  merely  with  an  individ- 
ual; but,  on  the  contrary,  we  are  often  struggling  with  the 
whole  gang,  or  may  be  with  its  leader,  hence  the  occasional 
surprises  and  unexpected  difficulties.  It  is  certain  that  we 
have  to  do  with  something  that  is  frequently  more  powerful  in 
determining  public  opinion  in  the  boy-world  than  teachers,  par- 
ents, and  all  other  adults  combined;  and  here,  as  elsewhere, pub- 
lic sentiment  controls.  And  what  is  the  significance  of  all  this? 
It  means  that  the  one  who  would  manage  the  boy  must  take  his 
cue  from  the  boys;  he  must  know  boy  life,  including  gang  life, 
and  proceed  in  a  manner  adapted  to  the  boys'  nature  and  pur- 
poses; for  this  is  the  only  way  to  make  a  successful  appeal. 
Club  life  flourishes  from  ten  to  fifteen,  reaching  its  maximum 
at  thirteen;  this  is  our  cue.  What  is  said  of  boys  is  also  true 
of  girls.  They,  of  course,  must  be  organized  separately.  The 
one  who  shapes  and  directs  the  affairs  of  the  club  must  be  an 
adult  whom  for  good  reasons  the  members  admire.  It  is  only 
as  a  real  leader  or  as  a  chum  that  one  can  greatly  influence 
the  life  of  the  preadolescent.  The  teacher  must  always  be 
the  leader  or  do  battle  for  his  authority;  the  father  must  be- 
come the  boy's  chum  not  later  than  ten  or  leave  the  welfare  of 
his  boy  to  others;  the  mother  is  always  the  chum  of  the  girl 
or  the  girl  is  a  stranger  in  her  own  home. 

Not  only  is  there  a  struggle  going  on  between  the  boy  and 
those  who  represent  the  authority  and  ideals  of  the  adult  world, 
but  there  is  a  real  struggle  going  on  between  the  boy  and  him- 
self, vin  a  civilized  community  a  boy  between  eight  and  twelve 
must  live  a  double  life;  fundamentally  he  is  a  barbarian,  a  mem- 
ber of  a  gang  with  its  unwritten  code  running  counter  to  much 
that  civilization  expects;  superficially  he  is  living  the  life  of 
the  home  circle  and  the  school,  shaping  his  wild  nature  as  best 
he  can,  when  he  is  not  in  opposition  to  the  artificial  but  neces- 
sary demands  that  are  made  upon  him.  Is  it  at  all  strange 
that  he  is  sometimes  changeable,  inconsistent,  fitful,  or  illogical, 


PREADOLESCENCE  21 

while  he  is  living  this  twofold  life?  It  is  ours  to  know  the  boy 
as  the  gang  knows  him,  if  we  would  understand  the  real  boy, 
who  is  neither  the  member  of  the  gang  nor  the  sedate  creature 
of  the  well-regulated  home,  but  a  creature  that  is  being  shaped 
by  both.  If  we  are  aware  of  the  dual  life  of  every  vigorous, 
normal  boy,  we  can  be  much  more  helpful  and  at  the  same  time 
find  our  contact  with  boy  life  much  pleasanter. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said,  if  the  preadolescent  has  received^ 
what  is  due  him,  he  comes  to  the  end  of  the  period  with  a  store 
of  health  and  vitality  sufficient  to  carry  him  through  the  "storm 
and  stress"  of  adolescence;  he  has  played  and  laughed  much 
and  worried  little  (for  play  is  his  serious  work) ;  he  has  lived  near 
to  nature;  he  has  made  some  vital  connections  with  the  world's 
moral  and  social  forces  through  story  and  tradition;  and  he 
has  formed  many  habits,  including  truthfidness  and  ohedi- 
ence,  which  it  is  hoped  will  carry  over  into  the  next  period  of 
his  developing  life  and  do  much  toward  safeguarding  and  sus- 
taining him  in  the  days  of  adolescent  turmoil  and  reconstruc- 
tion, these  habits  being  sometimes  the  only  means  of  connecting 
the  "new  life"  that  is  coming  with  the  past  life  in  which  he. 
has  felt  so  secure. 

It  has  seemed  best  to  dwell  upon  this  interesting  period  of 
child  life,  because  adolescence  is  founded  on  childhood,  and 
because  we  shall  find  considerable  belated  childishness  in  the 
form  of  belated  instincts  when  we  pass  to  the  study  of  the  next 
period.  Although  adolescents  are  rapidly  becoming  men  and 
women,  we  must  not  be  surprised  to  discover  at  times  a  lack 
of  manly  and  womanly  purposes;  there  may  be  horse-play 
and  many  other  symptoms  indicative  of  the  spirit  of  barbar- 
ism; and  because  we  have  learned  the  origin  and  explanation 
of  these  untimely  expressions,  we  shall  the  better  appreciate 
their  part  in  the  strange  complex  which  the  following  chapters 
try  to  unfold. 


PART  I  —  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

CHAPTER  III 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

In  one  of  his  lectures  William  James  says,  **  Wherever  a 
process  of  life  communicates  an  eagerness  to  him  who  lives  it, 
there  the  Hfe  becomes  genuinely  significant."  Although  this 
is  stated  as  a  general  proposition,  it  applies  with  greatest  force 
to  that  period  of  life  known  as  adolescence;  no  period  has  as 
much  significance  for  the  individual  or  the  race,  and  no  period 
is  so  fraught  with  eagerness,  an  eagerness  concomitant  with 
a  new  and  intensified  life.  The  term  adolescence  applies  to 
the  decade  which  begins  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
and  continues  to  maturity;  there  is  considerable  variability 
as  to  the  age  when  the  period  begins.  The  word  designating 
this  period  is  well  chosen;  it  takes  its  origin  from  the  strong 
old  Latin  verb  adolescere^  meaning  to  grow  up.  It  is  at  the 
on-coming  of  this  period,  called  puberty,  that  the  boy  begins 
to  pass  from  boyhood  to  manhood  and  the  girl,  from  girlhood 
to  womanhood,  with  all  that  such  a  change  involves.  It  is 
truly  a  time  of  "new  birth;"  for  the  individual  becomes  ca- 
pable of  new  modes  of  thought  and  feeling;  he  suddenly  finds 
himself  controlled  by  a  new  world  of  instincts  and  emotions; 
it  is  a  new  life  which  he  must  learn  to  live  and  adjust  himself  to. 
The  youth  frequently  must  make  a  serious  effort  to  fit  himself 
to  his  environment;  sometimes  he  finds  himself  in  conflict  with 
his  parents,  his  teachers,  or  his  friends;  and  there  is  probably 
always  a  struggle  between  the  youth  and  himself, —  hence  the 
contradictions  and  anomalies  so  characteristic  of  the  period. 


GENERAL  SURVEY  2$ 

It  is  a  time  when  old  moorings  are  broken  and  life's  bark  must 
make  its  course  through  waters  more  troubled,  for  the  currents 
arg  .setting  more  swiftly  and  strongly  than  at  any  other  time, 
^here  is  now  a  great,  rich,  rushing  flood  of  energy.  Thus  it 
is  that  the  youth  becomes  suddenly  conscious  of  being  alive  in 
a  new  and  significant  sense,  a  sense  very  different  from  the 
naive,  unquestioning,  and  self-centered  existence  of  his  preado- 
lescent  years. 

Although  this  period  has  been  studied  scientifically  only 
during  the  last  forty  years,  the  human  race  has  apparently 
always  appreciated  its  importance  and  understood  that  some- 
how the  developments  occurring  at  this  time  are  supremely 
significant.  This  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  various  ceremonies 
observed  among  savage  peoples  in  recognition  of  the  new  birth 
of  adolescence.  It  was  the  custom  among  the  aborigines  of 
Australia  to  allow  the  children  to  remain  with  the  women  of 
the  tribe  until  the  time  of  adolescence,  when  the  boys  were 
taken  by  the  old  men,  the  sacred  bull-roarers,  and  instructed 
in  matters  known  to  the  men,  after  which  they  were  expected 
to  take  part  in  all  adult  male  activities.  Among  many  savage 
races  the  ceremony  incident  to  adolescence  takes  the  form  of  a 
difficult  ordeal  or  test,  which  the  candidates  for  the  privileges 
of  manhood  must  pass  successfully.  This  required  proof  of 
virility  may  be  the  securing  of  the  scalp  or  the  head  of  an  enemy, 
or  it  may  consist  of  the  stoical  endurance  of  much  physical 
pain.  It  is  only  after  these  initiating  mysteries  that  the  male 
is  allowed  to  take  unto  himself  a  wife  and  assume  the  responsi- 
bilities of  sustaining  and  defending  a  family.  Among  the  In- 
dian tribes  of  North  America  it  was  the  girl  who  received  special 
attention  and  for  whom  the  most  exacting  initiatory  ceremony 
was  observed  at  pubescence;  it  was  for  her  that  the  ordeal  was 
planned,  which  sometimes  cost  her  life.  So  it  would  seem  that 
nearly  all  savages  are  fully  aware  of  the  deep  significance  of 
adolescence. 


24  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

Among  the  Romans,  who  were  so  thoughtful  concerning 
everything  that  makes  for  efficiency  in  the  individual,  as  well 
as  in  the  body  politic,  the  boy  at  the  age  of  fourteen  was  recog- 
nized as  a  social  unit  and  on  him  was  conferred  the  privilege 
of  wearing  the  toga  virilis. 

In  the  days  when  knighthood  was  in  flower  the  same  conscious- 
ness of  the  significance  of  adolescence  was  manifested.  From 
about  seven  to  fourteen  the  boys  were  much  in  the  company  of 
ladies,  receiving  their  lessons  in  games,  music,  religion,  obedi- 
ence, and  courtesy.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  page  became 
a  squire,  when  it  was  his  duty  to  accompany  his  lord  in  war, 
going  with  him  on  the  battle  field  and  attending  him  while 
defending  his  knightly  name  in  the  tournament.  Meanwhile 
the  squire  has  often  been  told  the  stories  of  the  brave  knights 
of  the  olden  time.  Thus  there  was  created  about  him  an  at- 
mosphere of  honor,  courage,  and  gallantry  at  an  age  when  he 
was  most  susceptible  to  these  ennobling  influences.  Then, 
toward  the  close  of  adolescence  he  was  made  a  knight  with 
imposing  surroundings  and  ceremonies.  Judged  by  results, 
this  system,  which  made  so  much  of  adolescence,  was  a  suc- 
cess; the  valiant,  loyal,  and  gentle  knights  were  the  ideal 
gentlemen  of  the  Middle  Ages,  constituting  one  of  the  bright 
spots  in  that  dark  and  discouraging  period  of  human  history. 

The  church,  too,  has  not  been  unmindful  of  the  importance  of 
adolescence;  confirmation  and  other  like  ceremonies  are  given  a 
place  in  the  life  of  the  child  with  reference  to  this  critical  period 
in  his  development.  In  the  Episcopal  Church  it  is  the  custom 
for  boys  to  take  their  first  communion  at  about  fourteen  and 
girls  at  about  twelve,  indicating  a  very  careful  timing  of  this 
sacrament  relative  to  the  on-coming  of  this  great  physiological 
and  accompanying  spiritual  change.  Although  the  time  of 
taking,  in  a  formal  way,  the  vows  and  obligations  of  religion 
differs  somewhat  in  the  different  churches,  all  seem  to  have 
had  in  mind  this  significant  physiological  change  when  deter- 


GENERAL  SURVEY  25 

mining  the  best  and  most  impressable  age  at  which  to  dedicate 
the  children  to  a  religious  life. 

The  more  evangelical  churches  are  also  aware  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  adolescence  in  the  religious  development  of  the  individ- 
ual. They  have  learned  that,  if  anything  Uke  conversion  is  to 
be  experienced,  the  chances  are  many  in  favor  of  this  happen- 
ing sometime  during  the  teens,  sixteen  being  the  age,  as  shown 
by  statistics,  when  the  greatest  number  decide  to  follow  a  reli- 
gious Hfe  and  unite  with  the  church.  The  physiological  and  con- 
sequent psychological  developments  which  are  in  progress  at 
this  time  make  this  religious  awakening  one  of  the  most  natural 
experiences  that  could  occur;  the  reason  for  this  will  be  evident 
when  the  nature  of  adolescent  changes  are  described. 

Again,  nearly  all  literature  and  art  which  make  a  strong 
human  appeal  have  recognized  the  significance  and  deep  interest 
of  this  period.  The  fields  of  literature  would  seem  extremely 
barren  and  uninviting  if  all  of  love  and  adventure  and  everything 
that  pertains  to  these  were  removed.  Nearly  all  poetry  and 
fiction  have  for  their  motive  the  meeting  and  mutual  discover- 
ing of  two  adolescents.  In  literature  we  read  the  accounts  of 
incidents  peculiar  to  and  consequent  upon  adolescence  rather 
than  descriptions  of  the  characteristics  of  adolescence;  and  it 
is  to  adolescence  with  all  its  varied  charms  that  artists  of  all 
kinds  have  oftenest  turned  for  subjects  and  for  inspiration,  this 
being  true  even  in  the  Middle  Ages  when  religion  and  the  church, 
with  much  effort  at  abnegation  and  humbling  of  the  flesh,  dom- 
inated practically  all  art;  the  budding  beauty  of  adolescent 
manhood  and  womanhood  inspired  the  brush  and  chisel,  and 
fascinated  the  beholding  worshipers.  It  is  the  youthful  Mary 
and  Magdalene,  St.  John  and  St.  Sebastian  that  charm  with 
their  beauty.  It  is  the  charm  and  beauty  of  youth  that  has 
given  us  the  most  interesting  characters  in  Plato's  Dialogues, 
in  Shakspere's  plays,  and  in  George  Eliot's  novels;  and  Goethe, 
who  never  seemed  to  outgrow  his  own  adolescence,  has  given 


26  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

us  his  famous  studies  in  adolescent  emotions  and  moods  in 
Werther  and  Wilhelm  Meister. 

Thus  the  world  has  felt  that  somehow  adolescence  is  a  great 
central  fact  in  human  development,  an  epoch  in  the  life  of  the 
individual  which  is  clearly  anticipated  by  much  physiological 
preparation  during  the  years  of  preadolescence,  and  an  epoch 
from  which  dates  nearly  all  that  gives  character  and  the  finer 
elements  of  personality,  the  most  formative  of  all  periods  of 
growth  and  development  both  for  the  race  and  for  the  individ- 
ual. The  facts  referred  to  thus  far  certainly  emphasize  the 
importance  of  this  period;  and  of  late  it  has  been  receiving  much 
attention  from  students  of  education.  Surely  a  knowledge  of 
it  should  be  included  in  the  equipment  of  all  who  are  to  deal 
with  boys  and  girls  that  are  living  through  its  meaningful 
changes.  But  the  student  of  the  period  is  confronted  with 
a  number  of  difficulties  and  dangers  of  considerable  magnitude. 
/  In  the  first  place,  he  cannot  well  remember  his  own  adolescent 
thoughts,  feeUngs,  and  experiences:  the  experiences  have  lost 
much  of  their  color;  the  emotions  Uve  in  memory  (if  at  all) 
greatly  softened,  having  come  to  resemble  the  later  eddyings  of 
life's  currents;  and  the  thoughts,  which  at  first  seemed  new  and 
important,  have  become  so  commonplace  that  both  they  and 
their  emotional  setting  have  ceased  to  represent  any  distinct 
mental  process  worthy  of  note.  The  evanescent  nature  of 
adolescent  experiences  is  no  doubt  due  largely  to  the  psychologi- 
cal fact  that  a  past  experience,  in  order  to  be  recalled  and  re- 
valued with  any  degree  of  accuracy  and  satisfaction,  must  have 
somewhat  the  same  instinctive  promptings  and  be  surrounded 
by  a  somewhat  similar  emotional  atmosphere,  conditions  from 
the  nature  of  the  case  wholly  impossible;  for  the  instinctive  and 
emotional  content  of  adolescent  life  is  distinctively  peculiar  to 
that  period.  The  rapidity  with  which  adolescence  is  forgotten 
is  well  illustrated  by  an  incident  related  by  Dr.  G.  Stanley 
Hall.      He  had  finished  a  popular  lecture  in  which  he  had  de- 


GENERAL  SURVEY  27 

scribed  the  characteristics  and  experiences  of  adolescence;  a 
lady  present  asserted  most  emphatically  that  she  at  least  had 
never  had  any  such  experiences  as  the  lecturer  had  just  de- 
scribed. But  fortunately  for  Dr.  Hall  and  his  thesis,  the  lady's 
mother  had  kept  her  daughter's  youthful  diary,  and  it  was 
known  to  contain,  among  other  things,  the  record  of  many 
psychical  experiences  distinctly  t)^ical  of  adolescence  as  pic- 
tured by  Dr.  Hall  in  his  lecture. 

The  difficulty  is  considerable,  too,  when  we  try  to  study  the 
adolescent  directly.  Many  of  his  thoughts  and  emotions  are 
to  him  unique  and  of  such  a  nature  that  he  does  not  wish  to 
describe  them  to  others;  sometimes  they  are  unpleasant,  and 
sometimes  they  are  felt  to  be  too  personal  and  in  a  way  sacred; 
so  he  instinctively  withdraws  into  himself  and  does  not  report 
frankly  concerning  these  matters,  which  at  best  he  feels  would 
not  be  understood  and  might  be  interpreted  as  weaknesses  or 
eccentricities.  Thus  the  enthusiastic  investigator  is  not  ad- 
mitted to  the  inner  temple  of  adolescent  consciousness  and  must 
look  elsewhere. 

It  is  often  said  that  "actions  speak  louder  than  words," 
hence  let  us  judge  the  nature  and  inward  experiences  of  the 
youth  by  what  he  does.  But  all  who  know  adolescents  are 
aware  of  their  adeptness  in  the  art  of  concealment.  We  need 
not  expect  the  boy  in  his  early  teens  to  "wear  his  heart  on 
his  sleeve."  His  soul  is  often  teeming  with  new  sentiments, 
sympathies,  and  flowery  ideals,  yet  he  will  play  his  part,  what- 
ever the  circumstances,  apparently  with  the  utmost  indifference. 
This  skill  in  concealing  their  real  thoughts  and  feelings  is  fre- 
quently evident  when  the  sexes  meet  on  occasions  when  they 
are  expected  to  mingle  and  enjoy  each  other's  society;  witness 
the  segregation  on  sex  lines  exhibited  in  the  groupings  and  the 
assumed  air  of  indifference  to  each  other's  presence  manifested 
at  a  class  party  of  first  year  high-school  pupils.  Moreover,  if 
we  attempt  to  learn  their  real  sentiments  by  questioning,  both 


28  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

boys  and  girls,  especially  in  their  early  teens,  will  instinctively 
guard  their  inner  life  by  a  system  of  evasive  and  false  answers; 
this  insincerity,  if  they  were  conscious  of  it,  might  be  justified 
by  them  on  the  ground  that  they  themselves  are  not  fully  and 
definitely  aware  of  their  own  inmost  thoughts  and  emotions, 
because  they  are  so  new  and  often  so  vague  and  ill-defined. 

Then,  too,  when  it  is  possible  to  get  at  the  real  inner  processes 
of  the  adolescent  mind,  we  are  confronted  with  the  most  be- 
wildering multiplicity  of  moods  and  characteristics,  moods  and 
characteristics  often  perplexingly  contradictory.  No  two  ado- 
lescents show  exactly  the  same  traits,  much  less  the  same  pro- 
gressive sequence  of  traits;  but  this  is  not  surprising,  since  in 
general  we  do  not  expect  to  find  two  people  just  alike.  How- 
ever, it  is  disturbing  to  enthusiastic  students  of  adolescent 
psychology  to  discover  that  very  frequently  the  inner  life  which 
he  is  trying  to  know  accurately  and  describe  scientifically  is 
an  extremely  nebulous  affair;  when  he  thinks  he  has  the  form 
and  content  of  his  subject  well  in  hand,  lo  and  behold,  like  the 
elusive  Proteus  with  whom  Ulysses  struggled  so  manfully,  it 
has  taken  on  a  new  shape;  in  other  words,  this  is  often  a  time 
of  transitory  moods  and  thoughts;  at  one  time  youth  is  active 
and  energetic  and  again  lethargic  and  static,  now  on  "the  celes- 
tial mountain"  and  now  in  "  the  slough  of  despond."  At  times 
it  would  seem  that  there  is  little  coherence  among  the  elements 
of  personality;  and  naturally  all  these  transitory  moods  and 
contradictions  are  as  perplexing  to  the  subject  of  the  investi- 
gation as  to  the  investigator. 

Another  danger,  ever  present  when  any  continuously  pro- 
gressive series  of  events  is  under  consideration,  is  the  tendency 
to  draw  exaggerated  pictures  of  certain  moods  and  mental 
phases  of  this  period;  such  is  likely  to  happen  when  any  period 
of  life  is  arbitrarily  set  off,  as  is  necessary,  for  purposes  of  study; 
but  the  temptation  is  particularly  strong  when  we  are  dealing 
with  such  striking  and  often  dramatic  material.    Sometimes 


GENERAL  SURVEY  29 

it  would  seem  that  the  analytic  method  of  attack  is  peculiarly 
ill-suited  to  the  study  of  such  a  thing  as  the  living,  dynamic, 
continuously  changing  stream  of  individual  life.  Here  every- 
thing occurs  by  infinitely  minute  gradations;  in  reality  there 
are  no  lines  such  as  we  set  up  for  our  convenience  in  study; 
all  is  a  flux,  what  the  philosophers  call  a  continuum.  This  is 
true  in  both  the  physical  and  spiritual  realms,  hence  the  ever- 
present  danger  alluded  to.  Moreover,  a  writer  on  such  a  sub- 
ject is  often  tempted  merely  in  the  interest  of  clearness  to  over- 
color  his  descriptions  and  exhibit  the  contrasting  features  of  his 
picture  in  the  high  lights.  No  period  of  human  development 
has  been  more  sinned  against  in  this  way  than  adolescence; 
for  nowhere  has  the  temptation  been  so  great;  and  all  recent 
students  and  writers  have  had  before  them  a  monumental 
example  of  this  tendency  toward  the  exaggerated,  not  to  say 
fantastic,  in  the  elaborate  descriptions  and  speculations  of 
Dr.  Hall. 

But  some  of  the  recent  students  of  this  period,  influenced  by 
the  spirit  and  methods  of  a  scientific  age,  have  carefully  at- 
tempted to  overcome  and  offset  the  dangers  and  errors  incident 
to  the  study  of  individuals  by  taking  into  account  thousands 
of  adolescents,  thus  arriving  at  averages  and  curves  represent- 
ing growth  and  development.  And  here,  again,  we  are  in  trouble; 
no  one  would  claim  that  an  average  is  a  real  living  boy  or  girl, 
or  that  it  can  be  made  to  represent  any  part  or  phase  of  life. 
When  once  obtained,  an  average  is  fixed  and  static,  two  qualities 
the  furthest  possible  from  representing  or  even  suggesting 
anything  characteristic  of  the  nature  of  adolescence.  And  so 
it  is  with  the  curve,  now  so  much  in  use;  although  it  may  be 
made  to  represent  a  progressive  series  of  events  or  stages  of 
development  and  the  concomitant  variants,  yet  the  curve,  as 
such,  is  as  definite  and  fixed  as  the  average,  and  hence  cannot 
be  made  to  stand  for  life  or  any  of  life's  processes.  Then  we 
must  add  to  this  consideration  concerning  averages  and  curves, 


30  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

that  the  original  sources  of  the  data  from  which  the  averages 
are  struck  and  the  curves  plotted  are  the  adolescents  themselves, 
whom  we  have  found  so  unreliable.  When  pursued  by  the 
persistent  maker  of  questionnaires  and  asked  to  tell  of  their  likes 
and  dislikes,  their  instinctive  reactions  and  their  emotional 
responses,  their  manner  of  thinking  and  their  ideals,  who  knows 
how  near  the  truth  their  answers  come,  even  assuming  all 
concerned  aim  to  be  frank  and  truthful  in  exposing  to  view 
their  innermost  sentiments?  The  method  involves  the  same 
fallacy  as  "guessing  at  half  and  multiplying  by  two." 

Yet  in  spite  of  the  obstacles  and  dangers  peculiar  to  this  study, 
there  are  a  number  of  pretty  definitely  established  facts  and 
tendencies  of  a  general  nature  that  have  much  interest  for  the 
parent,  the  teacher,  or  any  one  who  deals  with  boys  and  girls 
of  this  age.  Some  of  these  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  remainder 
of  this  chapter  to  consider. 

Although  some  writers  have  made  too  much  of  the  idea,  it 
is  helpful  to  think  of  the  physical  and  psychical  changes 
that  set  in  at  this  time  as  a  "new  birth,"  a  view  suggested 
by  Rousseau  many  years  ago;  new  and  all-important  func- 
tions come  into  existence,  and  with  them  higher  and  more 
complete  human  traits  are  born,  manifested  by  a  distinctly 
more  individualistic  and  human  attitude.  It  has  been  said 
that  the  child  comes  from  and  harks  back  to  a  remoter  past, 
the  ages  of  the  kinship  clan  and  the  tribal  organization;  but 
in  the  adolescent  the  later  acquisitions  and  developments 
of  the  race  become  potent.  The  forces  and  tendencies  that 
were  formerly  operative,  if  they  continue,  seem  to  break  up 
and  recombine,  resulting  many  times  in  an  almost  new  be- 
ing; the  individual  is  now  responding  more  completely  to  his 
social  environment  and  to  his  own  will;  personal  loyalty, 
self-reliance,  and  leadership  are  the  stages  in  will-growth  which 
closely  follow  and  frequently  telescope  into  each  other  during 
the  ten  years  of  adolescence,  while  the  corresponding  charac- 


GENERAL  SURVEY  5I 

teristics  are  chivalry,  self-assertion,  and  a  spirit  of  cooperation. 
All  phases  of  physical  and  mental  development  are  accelerated 
and  intensified.  Because  the  old  harmonies  characteristic  of 
preadolescence  are  broken  and  the  finer  adjustments  to  envi- 
ronment of  that  earlier  period  have  been  disturbed,  because  of 
the  saltatory  nature  of  the  developments  that  are  taking  place 
in  the  mental  and  emotional  life,  developments  based  on  new 
instincts  and  new  powers,  because  of  all  these  changes,  the 
physical  and  especially  the  social  world  seem  strange  and  novel. 
This  awakening  to  a  seemingly  new  world  gives  rise  to  a  double 
perplexity;  for  the  youth  understands  neither  his  apparently 
changed  surroundings  nor  his  transformed  self.  However, 
there  finally  emerges  out  of  all  this  inchoate  confusion  some 
kind  of  order,  and,  as  Bourne  says,  "  the  disturbing  currents  of 
impulse  are  gradually  resolved  into  a  character."  Do  not  all 
these  vital  changes  in  the  individual  and  his  views  of  Ufe  war- 
rant the  use  of  the  term  new  birth?  First  he  is  bom  "to  exist," 
and  now  he  is  bom  "to  live." 

Although  in  adolescence  there  is  a  great  variety  of  contradic- 
tory characteristics  as  we  pass  from  one  individual  to  another, 
one  characteristic  is  always  present  in  every  normal  youth 
and  that  is  life,  and  life  in  abundance.  At  this  period  the 
stream  of  life  is  sometimes  so  swollen  and  the  currents  are 
setting  and  surging  so  vigorously  that  it  breaks  through  and 
overflows  its  natural  channel,  and,  as  with  the  delightful  meadow 
brook  during  the  spring  freshet  when  it  overtops  its  banks, 
there  is  trouble;  life's  stream  in  this  showery  springtime  takes 
on  a  new  and  disturbing  character,  and  the  practical  outcome 
is  often  surprising  to  all  concerned;  the  very  abundance  of 
life,  which  is  most  desirable,  appears  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
trouble.  However,  it  will  be  shown  in  a  later  chapter  that 
this  is  not  the  scientific  and  helpful  way  of  stating  the  case; 
there  can  never  really  be  "  too  much  of  a  good  thing." 

By  reason  of  the  comparative  suddenness  of  the  change, 


32  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

which  is  both  quantitative  and  quahtative,  that  comes  in  the 
life-processes,  it  has  been  customary  to  refer  to  this  period  as 
a  turning  point  in  the  life  of  the  individual,  and  many  figura- 
tive expressions  have  been  used  to  indicate  its  revolutionary 
nature.  However,  "turning  point"  or  crisis  is  not  quite 
accurate;  it  is  rather  a  series  of  crises,  and  a  series  the  terms 
of  which  sometimes  exhibit  the  most  perplexing  incongruities. 
Perhaps  with  a  majority  of  adolescents  this  period  is  lived 
through  so  successfully  or  seemingly  so  calmly  that  the  ex- 
pression series  of  crises  is  over-emphatic,  since  the  more  strik- 
ing features  appear  almost  non-existent.  As  to  how  the  in- 
dividual responds  to  the  on-rushing  flood  of  new  sensations, 
instincts,  and  emotions  depends  largely  upon  two  things,  tem- 
perament and  social  environment,  the  one  subjective  and  the 
other  objective,  the  one  largely  predetermined  and  the  other 
to  be  controlled;  the  discussion  of  this  control  belongs  to  later 
chapters. 

The  next  fact  to  be  noted  concerning  this  period  is  the  logical 
outcome  of  the  characteristics  already  described,  and  it  is  by 
far  the  most  important  consideration;  for  it  is  the  central  ped- 
agogical fact  of  adolescence.  This  is  the  great  formative  period 
for  the  individual;  what  happens  now  conditions  and  largely 
determines  all  that  the  future  has  in  store.  It  is  the  significant 
day  of  new  things,  the  Renaissance  of  life,  the  time  when  the 
elements  of  personality  (some  old  and  some  new)  are  being 
assembled  and  unified,  the  age  when  the  finer,  higher,  and  more 
human  traits  of  character  are  being  developed  and  built  into 
definite  form.  This  is  but  a  way  of  saying  that,  of  all  times  of 
life,  this  is  the  most  plastic,  because  of  the  power  shown  to 
reshape  and  recombine  and  because  of  the  capacity  manifested 
to  absorb  and  assimilate  whatever  chances  to  come  into  the 
intellectual,  moral,  industrial,  religious,  and  above  all,  the 
social  environment  of  the  individual.  Youth  must  now  eat  of 
the  fruit  that  grows  on  "  the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evU." 


GENERAL  SURVEY  33 

It  is  the  time  when  youth  enthusiastically  greets  and  welcomes 
all  that  he  discovers  in  his  apparently  new  environment.  It 
is  the  time,  too,  when  he  receives  his  social  heritage;  the  great 
wealth  of  non-material  resources  which  the  race  has,  through 
much  effort,  been  accumulating  during  all  past  time  is  now  due 
him;  'and  it  is  a  matter  of  much  moment  whether  he  rejects, 
or  whether  he  accepts  and  appropriates  this  heritage. 

Since  adolescence  is  a  period  of  such  rich  and  vital  possibil- 
ities, since  it  is  the  time  the  man  or  the  woman,  with  all  that  is 
implied,  is  created,  it  logically  follows,  other  things  being  equal, 
that  the  longer  this  formative  period  lasts,  the  more  will  be 
accomplished  for  the  individual;  consequently  the  richer  will 
be  the  life  of  the  man  or  woman,  and  the  race's  accumulated 
store  of  manhood  and  womanhood  be  thus  increased.  Such  is 
the  case;  this  psychological  possibility  is  a  historical  fact.  A 
number  of  years  ago  John  Fiske  made  his  most  important  con- 
tribution to  the  science  of  human  life  when  he  showed  the  rela- 
tion between  a  prolonged  infancy  and  the  progress  of  the  race. 
In  the  same  way  and  for  the  same  psychological  reason,  the 
highest  civilizations  and  a  prolonged  adolescence  are  found 
together;  maturity  among  savages  comes  at  an  earlier  age,  and 
the  process  is  of  shorter  duration.  With  the  individual  it  is 
generally  found  that,  if  the  pubertal  changes  take  place  at  the 
normal  age,  considering  race  and  climate,  and  if  the  maturing, 
both  physical  and  mental,  is  not  in  any  way  artificially  hastened, 
the  greatest  and  most  satisfactory  results  follow.  There  is 
another  interesting  fact  connected  with  this:  genius  in  almost 
any  field  of  human  endeavor  (with  the  possible  exception  of 
music,  which  often  appears  early)  is  foreshadowed  during  adoles- 
cence; and,  as  Dr.  Hall  has  pointed  out,  the  whole  future  of 
the  youth  depends  upon  husbanding  and  directing  the  new 
powers.  Caution  is  usually  needed;  for  by  reason  of  the  new- 
ness of  the  experiences,  and  because  of  the  momentum  of  the 
forces  that  are  surging  within,  every  trait  and  faculty  is  prone 


^ 


34  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

to  exaggeration  and  excess,  consequently  the  liability  to  trouble 
and  waste. 

Before  closing  this  general  survey  it  will  be  helpful  to  mark 
off  as  clearly  as  possible  the  three  phases  or  stages  of  develop- 
ment of  this  period;  they  are  now  generally  recognized  as, 
early,  middle,  and  late  adolescence.  Although  these  stages  are 
not  naturally  separated  by  any  sharp  line  of  demarcation,  but 
frequently  telescope  into  one  another,  they  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished and  easily  characterized.  Early  adolescence  with 
the  boy  generally  extends  from  about  thirteen  to  fifteen  years; 
middle  adolescence,  from  fourteen  to  eighteen;  and  late  ado- 
lescence, from  seventeen  to  twenty-four.  The  overlapping 
of  these  stages,  as  just  stated,  indicates  the  wide  variation  in 
the  development  of  youth.    With  girls  each  of  these  stages  of 

evelopment  begins  about  a  year  and  a  half  earlier. 
Early  adolescence  has  been  variously  named:  the  awkward 
age,  the  period  of  chivalry,  the  age  of  personal  loyalty,  the  time 
of  hero  worship.  According  to  the  recapitulation  theory,  it 
is  supposed  to  correspond  to  the  feudal  period  of  the  world's 
history.  It  is  the  time  of  very  rapid  physical  growth,  the  in- 
crease in  height  during  one  year  sometimes  reaching  four  to 
six  inches.  The  movements  are  awkward,  due  to  a  new  self-con- 
sciousness and  the  lack  of  adjustment  of  the  nervous  system 
to  the  changed  physical  proportions.  The  old,  well-adjusted 
harmony  with  nature  that  characterized  preadolescence  is 
broken  up.  It  is  the  time  of  puberty  with  all  that  it  implies. 
The  center  of  personality  is  physiological  rather  than  psycho- 
logical; new  sensations,  instincts,  and  experiences  are  rushing 
in  and  have  not  yet  been  fully  translated;  hence  meanings 
and  values  are  not  yet  determined.  Mental  unity  must  of 
necessity  come  later.  It  is  not  strange  that  youth  at  this  time 
is  frequently  unresponsive  and  occasionally  stolid;  for  he  is 
uncertain  of  himself.  As  Eang  explains  it,  "he  has  not  yet 
felt  enough  of  the  uprushing  vital  force  of  youth  to  step  out 


GENERAL  SURVEY  35 

in  any  positive  way  or  assume  any  definite  attitude  of  his  own." 
The  pleasing  teachableness  of  preadolescence  has  passed  and 
the  splendid  idealism  of  middle  adolescence  has  not  appeared, 
i However,  many  fine  traits  here  take  their  rise;  early  adoles- 
cence is  really  the  infancy  of  man's  higher  estate.  The  comrade- 
ship of  the  gang  has  gone,  but  the  capacity  for  personal  loy- 
alty has  taken  its  place.  The  ready  and  convenient  obedience 
of  boyhood  and  girlhood  are  frequently  lacking;  but  loyalty 
may  naturally  be  made  a  substitute,  for  in  it  shines  the  spirit 
of  true  obedience  as  distinguished  from  coertion.  Generally 
these  two  years  are  thought  of  as  troublesome  and  disagreeable; 
the  girl  is  tall  and  awkward,  neither  girl  nor  woman;  and  the 
boy  is  usually  worse,  feels  more  his  lack  of  poise  and  is  less 
docile. 

Here  is  Tagore's  description  of  the  boy.  "In  the  world  of 
human  affairs  there  is  no  worse  nuisance  than  a  boy  at  the  age 
of  fourteen.  He  is  neither  ornamental  nor  useful.  It  is  im- 
possible to  shower  affection  on  him  as  on  a  little  boy;  and  he 

is  always  getting  in  the  way He  grows  out  of  his 

clothes  with  indecent  haste;  his  voice  grows  hoarse  and  breaks 
and  quavers;  his  face  grows  suddenly  angular  and  unsightly.  .  . 
When  he  talks  with  elderly  people  he  is  either  unduly  forward, 
or  else  so  unduly  shy  that  he  appears  ashamed  of  his  very  ex- 
istence." 

But  all  is  likely  to  go  well  if  there  is  at  hand  a  strong  adult 
personality,  for  this  is  a  time  of  hero-worship.  To  quote 
again  from  Tagore,  who  has  been  so  successful  in  dealing  with 
Bengali  adolescents;  "It  is  at  this  very  age  when  in  his  heart 
of  hearts  a  young  lad  most  craves  for  recognition  and  love;  and 
he  becomes  the  devoted  slave  of  any  one  who  shows  him  con- 
sideration." Experience  soon  causes  the  youth  to  realize  that, 
if  his  efforts  at  cooperation  are  to  be  continuously  successful, 
there  must  be  a  leader.  When  the  leader  is  worthy  according 
to  his  standards,  the  youth  will  gladly  follow;   he  admires  in 


^3^  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

his  leader  resourcefulness,  alertness,  skill,  physical  prowess, 
and  the  other  feudal  virtues.  Yet  the  choice  of  a  hero  at  this 
time  is  frequently  discouraging;  it  may  be  a  football  star,  a 
bull-dozer,  a  real  gentleman,  a  boy  tyrant,  or  even  a  boy  crim- 
inal. 

Altogether,  early  adolescence  is  likely  to  be  a  strange,  un- 
settled, impulsive,  yeasty,  tumultuous,  unattractive,  but  not 
uninteresting  time  in  the  development  of  youth,  a  time  that 
must  be  understood  and  sympathetically  dealt  with.  It  is  the 
age  of  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  and  the  first 
year  of  the  high  school;  it  is  an  age  whose  peculiar  needs  call 
for  carefully  determined  school  treatment,  which  many  edu- 
cators throughout  the  country  propose  to  furnish  by  means 
of  the  junior  high  school,  or  what  Snedden  calls  the  inter- 
mediate school.  The  junior  high  school  is  the  subject  of  a 
later  chapter. 

Middle  adolescence  is  preeminently  the  period  of  self-asser- 
tion; it  is  the  time  when  the  individual  naturally  develops 
self-reliance;  it  is  the  age  when  the  ego  comes  into  its  own  and 
to  some  extent  slips  into  the  place  of  the  hero;  Shakespeare's 
"to  thine  own  self  be  true"  now  makes  a  strong  appeal.  This 
epoch  in  the  life  of  the  individual  is  said  to  correspond  to  the 
Revolutionary  Period  of  constitutional  monarchy.  Physical 
growth  is  not  so  rapid  as  during  the  first  two  years  of  adoles- 
cence, and  body  and  limbs  are  now  assuming  the  form  and 
proportions  of  manhood  and  womanhood;  there  is  the  clean- 
cut  muscular  figure  which  displaces  the  delightful  chubbiness 
of  earlier  years,  and  there  is  the  chiseled  face  of  eager  youth. 
The  center  of  personality  is  fast  shifting  from  a  physical  to  a 
spiritual  basis;  as  King  says,  "the  youth  emerges  from  the 
somewhat  animal-like  crassness  of  the  pubertal  years  and  be- 
gins to  think  of  his  social  relationship,  his  duties,  and  the 
rights  and  wrongs  of  his  acts."  He  still  thinks  of  himself,  but 
of  himself  as  related  to  others.    Although  there  is  as  yet  a 


GENERAL  SURVEY  37 

lack  of  mental  perspective,  the  youth  is  beginning  to  have  a 
sense  of  values,  and  life  is  coming  to  have  much  significance. 
Much  intellectual  curiosity  and  enthusiastic  eagerness  and 
alertness  now  take  the  place  of  the  earlier  unresponsiveness. 
Although  some  fickleness  is  carried  over  from  the  earlier  period, 
a  new  manliness  and  womanliness  is  rapidly  becoming  manifest, 
and  an  appeal  to  "honor"  can  most  profitably  be  made,  for 
now  comes,  as  Montaigne  expresses  it,  "the  relish  of  right 
and  wrong." 

Because  the  social  instincts  are  so  largely  in  control,  coopera- 
tive games  with  much  team-work  displace  the  more  individual- 
istic games.  A  combination  of  initiative  and  capacity  for 
cooperation  develop  side  by  side;  this  means  that  the  youth 
must  now  begin  to  get  his  training  for  leadership.  A  man  or 
woman  with  strong  personality  is  now  greatly  needed  to  lead 
and  to  suggest;  for  youth  has  not  yet  sufficient  self-control 
for  continuous  self-government.  The  social  horizon  is  widen- 
ing more  rapidly  than  at  any  other  time  in  life;  it  is  now  that 
the  youth  must  take  practically  full  possession  of  his  social 
heritage;  for  the  social  instincts  are  now  ripening  most  rapidly. 

On  the  spiritual  side  youth  is  seeing  visions  and  thinking 
great  thoughts,  inspired  often  by  a  fine  idealism;  and  he  should 
be  daily  growing  richer  in  that  which  is  distinctly  human  and 
charming.  Although  not  really  an  adult,  the  youth  must  in 
many  things  be  treated  as  an  adult  and  never  as  a  child  (the 
greatest  possible  mistake  that  could  be  made).  This  is  pre- 
eminently the  high-school  age;  hence  the  high-school  cur- 
riculum and  all  the  school  activities  must  be  so  planned  and 
administered  as  to  make  the  strongest  and  broadest  social 
appeal. 

If  the  two  earlier  stages  of  adolescent  development  have 
brought  to  the  individual  the  maximum  growth  in  personality 
and  self-reliance,  late  adolescence  should  manifest  itself  as  a 
period  fraught  with  great  possibilities  for  cooperation  and 


38  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

leadership;  individual  resourcefulness,  leading  to  various  forms 
of  efficiency,  should  characterize  young  manhood  and  woman- 
hood from  seventeen  to  twenty-fouf.  Carrying  out  the  re- 
capitulation theory,  this  phase  of  individual  development  may 
be  said  to  parallel  the  present  stage  of  the  world's  political  ma- 
turing, the  epoch  of  the  self-governing  state  or  republic  in  its 
highest  form.  Although  complete  physical  maturity  is  not 
reached  until  from  twenty-three  to  twenty-five,  the  bones  and 
muscles  are  so  well  "set"  and  the  joints  are  so  firm  that  very 
vigorous  and  trying  sports  and  labor  may  profitably  be  in- 
dulged in;  hardening  must  be  brought  about  by  combined 
physical  and  mental  strain;  the  physical  being  must  now  be 
brought  to  its  perfection,  for  it  is  the  last  chance.  The  mind 
should  now  be  ready  to  undertake  its  deepest  and  most  difficult 
thinking,  and  see  things  as  wholes  and  in  their  true  relations. 
It  is  the  time  for  the  greatest  originality,  the  most  consimimate 
strategy,  and  the  perfection  of  the  social  graces. 

At  this  time  arises  the  desire  for  social  service  and  with  it 
the  highest  possibility  for  cultivating  this  field.  It  is  the  time, 
too,  for  training  in  vocational  skill  if  the  best  results  are  to 
be  realized.  Because  this  is  preeminently  the  age  for  cooper- 
ation and  the  securing  of  cooperation,  some  type  of  leadership 
may  be  expected, —  athletic,  political,  oratorical,  social.  The 
young  man  must  have  an  opportunity  to  practice  leadership 
at  least  on  a  small  scale;  its  responsibility  has  a  sobering  and 
maturing  effect.  Now  for  the  first  time  the  young  man  or 
young  woman  becomes  capable  of  real  self-government  and  is 
able  to  join  with  others  to  form  successful  self-governing  groups. 
It  is  during  this  period  that  the  individual  naturally  begins  to 
feel  his  allegiance  to  his  country;  the  personal  loyalty  of  early 
adolescence  now  becomes  patriotism.  In  brief,  this  is  the  age 
when  young  manhood  and  young  womanhood  reaches  its  per- 
fection. Educationally  it  is  the  age  when  we  expect  to  find 
the  adolescent  in  college;  and  the  colleges  have  the  responsi- 


GENERAL  SURVEY  39 

bility  of  providing  for  development  and  training  along  all  the 
lines  suggested  by  the  powers  and  tastes  which  appear  at  this 
time. 

Enough  has  been  said  in  this  chapter  to  show  that  we  are 
approaching  a  most  fascinating  and  worthy  theme,  a  study 
that  should  be  helpful  to  all  who  would  assume  a  practical 
attitude  toward  all  phases  of  human  nature.  To  deal  success- 
fully with  human  beings  we  must  deal  with  them  as  they  are, 
and  to  that  end  we  must  understand  them  as  they  really  are. 
There  is  no  period  of  life  more  difficult  to  deal  with  on  a  prac- 
tical basis  than  this  period  of  youth;  but  the  difficulties  in- 
volved do  not  warrant  discouragement,  nor  do  they  in  any  way 
suggest  a  passive  attitude  toward  the  many  troublesome  prob- 
lems. It  is  certainly  not  a  matter  of  tiding  youth  safely  through 
these  critical  years,  but  it  is  a  work  of  character-building  (com- 
monplace as  this  sounds)  and  it  demands  an  active  instead  of  a 
timid,  passive  attitude.  The  nature  and  the  boundless  energy 
of  youth  furnish  the  raw  material  and  the  vitalizing  force;  but 
the  results  depend  more  than  is  generally  admitted  upon  edu- 
cational and  social  forces.  There  is  no  age  so  responsive  to 
all  that  is  best  and  socially  effective;   and  the  seeds,  both  the 

jood  and  the  noxious,  strike  deep  roots  into  the  psychic  soil. 

'hose  who  have  had  experience  do  not  need  to  be  told 
that,  not  only  is  the  nature  of  the  adolescent  intensely  fascin- 
ating as  a  study,  but  still  more  interesting  and  inspiring  is 
youth  itself  to  all  who  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  close  and 
sympathetic  contact  with  wholesome  adolescent  boys  and 
rls. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PHYSIOLOGICAL   CHANGES  AND   CHARACTERISTICS 

All  the  phenomena  alluded  to  in  the  preceding  chapter, 
which  are  so  significant  for  the  individual  and  the  race,  have  as 
their  background  the  characteristics  and  changes  to  be  de- 
scribed here.  The  maturing  of  the  all-important  sex  functions 
constitutes  the  central  and  casual  factor  of  the  whole  adoles- 
cent period.  Accompanying  this  functional  development, 
which  is  known  as  puberty,  is  a  very  rapid  and  often  erratic 
physical  growth,  followed  by  a  wonderful  mental  and  social 
development  and  reconstruction.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
chapter  to  give  a  somewhat  detailed  account  of  the  physiologi- 
cal changes  which  occur  at  this  time. 

The  first  fact  to  be  noted  is  the  variation  in  age  of  the  on-com- 
ing of  the  pubertal  changes.  In  this  matter  the  range  of  in- 
dividual variation  is  generally  from  ten  to  eighteen  years,  both 
ages  being  very  unusual.  Large  numbers  of  boys  and  girls 
have  been  studied,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  average  time 
for  the  beginning  of  puberty  with  girls  is  twelve  to  thirteen  and 
the  average  for  boys  is  fourteen.  The  tabulated  results  of  a 
study  of  4800  boys  in  the  New  York  high  schools  by  Dr.  C.  W. 
Compton  show  that  six  per  cent  were  mature  at  twelve  and 
three-fourths  years;  and  the  percentages  of  boys  becoming 
pubescent  each  succeeding  half  year  are  as  follows, —  12,  13, 
15,  14,  10,  15,  8,  3,  2;  thus,  when  the  age  of  seventeen  and  three- 
fourths  years  is  reached,  the  whole  4800  boys  have  become  phys- 
iologically mature.  An  Italian  student,  Marro  by  name,  has 
arranged  a  table  showing  the  onset  of  puberty  for  261  girls. 
One  matured  at  ten  years  of  age,  six  at  eleven,  sixteen  at  twelve, 

40 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS     41 

thirty-four  at  thirteen,  sixty-one  at  fourteen,  fifty-four  at  fif- 
teen, forty  at  sixteen,  twenty-nine  at  seventeen,  twelve  at  eight- 
een, four  at  nineteen,  two  at  twenty,  and  two  at  twenty-one. 
Marro's  table  shows  a  greater  variability  and  a  higher  average 
age  than  is  generally  stated  by  American  students  of  adolescence. 
The  age  at  which  puberty  takes  place  has  much  importance  for 
those  who  are  trying  to  solve  certain  administrative  problems  in 
public  education;  for  it  has  been  shown  by  recent  studies  that 
there  is  a  vital  relation  between  the  on-coming  of  adolescence 
and  the  success  of  pupils  in  doing  certain  kinds  of  school  work. 
Individual  differences  as  shown  by  these  tables  are  so  marked 
that  the  need  of  a  considerable  degree  of  flexibility  in  the  school 
machinery  is  suggested. 

It  is  well  to  note  that  this  great  variability  in  the  age  of  pu- 
berty, as  shown  by  the  studies  made  thus  far,  is  paralleled  by 
the  same  degree  of  variability  in  many  other  physiological 
changes  incident  to  adolescence.  Thus  individual  variability 
itself  is  one  of  the  common  characteristics  of  the  period  of  ado- 
lescence; that  is,  the  range  of  difference  among  individuals 
relative  to  any  one  trait  is  greater  during  adolescence  than  at 
any  other  time.  Because  of  the  marked  and  extreme  variabil- 
ity in  the  appearance  of  the  many  adolescent  characteristics, 
it  is  convenient  in  our  educational  discussions  to  use  the  term 
"physiological  age,"  which  stands  for  the  degree  of  physiologi- 
cal maturity  the  pupil  has  reached,  puberty  being  the  central 
change  from  which  maturity  is  reckoned.  The  tables  already 
referred  to  indicate  that  there  is  often  a  great  lack  of  agreement 
between  the  physiological  age  and  the  chronological  age.  The 
other  terms  used  in  this  connection  are  psychological  age  and 
pedagogical  age;  the  first  is  determined  by  the  pupil's  degree 
of  mental  development  and  the  latter  by  his  place  in  the  school. 

There  are  many  influences  which  affect  in  a  pretty  definite 
way  the  age  of  physiological  maturing  of  the  individual;  and  the 
results,  as  effecting  the  welfare  of  the  individual  when  the  time 


42  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

of  maturing  is  other  than  normal,  have  been  rather  definitely 
estabhshed.  As  already  noted,  sex  is  usually  a  determining 
factor,  the  girl  maturing  from  a  year  and  a  half  to  two  years 
younger  than  the  boy.  Thus  in  any  school  grade  with  an  equal 
number  of  boys  and  girls  the  average  physiological  age  of  the 
girls  is  greater  than  that  of  the  boys;  and  this  is  easily  detected 
by  observing  either  physical  or  mental  characteristics.  Then 
climatic  conditions  influence  the  age  of  puberty.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  the  warmer  the  climate  the  earlier  the  pu- 
bertal change  comes,  especially  is  this  true  of  the  dark-skinned 
races.  In  the  countries  near  the  equator  puberty  sets  in  at 
about  ten  or  eleven.  A  study  of  the  races  of  the  temperate 
zone  indicates  that  the  various  Scandinavian  peoples  mature 
later  physiologically  than  the  others,  and  the  Hebrews  somewhat 
earlier.  Again,  and  of  more  practical  importance,  economic 
and  industrial  conditions  have  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
individual's  age  of  maturing.  All  that  may  be  covered  by 
the  term  hygiene  —  nutrition,  fresh  air,  sleep,  clothing,  and 
the  rest  —  affects  in  a  definite  way  the  age  of  puberty;  good 
conditions  tend  to  early  maturing  and  unfavorable  conditions 
tend  toward  retarded  development.  Thus  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  the  children  of  the  well-to-do  maturing  earlier  than  those 
of  the  laboring  class.  So  far  as  can  be  determined,  the  advent 
of  puberty  seems  to  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the 
hygienic  conditions  under  which  the  children  live  during  pre- 
adolescence;  without  doubt  this  is  the  time  when  the  individual 
should  lay  in  his  store  of  health  and  energy  if  he  is  to  have 
an  early  and  successful  adolescence.  F.  Boas,  who  is  an  author- 
ity in  the  matter,  says,  in  an  article  in  A  Cyclopedia  of  Edu- 
cation: "Among  the  poor,  the  period  of  diminishing  growth 
which  precedes  adolescence  is  lengthened  and  the  acceleration 
of  adolescence  sets  in  later.  The  whole  period  of  growth  is 
lengthened;  but  the  total  amount  of  growth  during  this  longer 
period  is  less  than  the  amount  of  growth  attained  during  the 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS     43 

shorter  period  of  growth  of  the  well-to-do."  "The  whole 
group  of  the  poor  are,  at  any  given  time,  physiologically  younger 
than  the  well-to-do."  Hence  the  important  conclusion  is 
reached,  that,  so  far  as  the  individual  is  concerned,  any  con- 
ditions that  favor  a  moderately  early  development  are  much 
to  be  desired;  also,  as  we  should  expect,  whatever  affects  the 
physical  well-being  affects  also  the  mental.  Although  of  less 
pedagogical  significance,  it  is  patent  to  all  observers  that  hered- 
ity has  an  unmistakable  influence  in  this  matter  under  discus- 
sion. Certain  families  of  the  same  social  status  and  the  same 
race  as  the  rest  of  the  community  are  noticeably  early  in  ma- 
turing; but  thus  far  the  effect  of  early  maturing  due  to  heredity 
has  not  been  determined  by  a  study  of  a  large  number  of  cases. 
Before  considering  the  many  physical  changes  occurring  at 
this  time  that  are  determined  quantitatively  by  accurate  meas- 
urements, it  may  be  well  to  mention  a  few  characteristics  that 
appear  on  the  surface  and  have  been  noted  by  all  who  are  in- 
terested in  youthful  development.  No  one  has  failed  to  note 
the  marked  change  of  voice  in  the  boy.  All  are  familiar  with 
the  rapid  shooting  up  in  height.  The  mother  knows  how  diifi-^ 
cult  it  is  to  keep  the  boy's  sleeves  down  to  his  wrists  and  to 
maintain  his  trouser  bottoms  at  the  proper  level.  The  boy, 
as  well  as  every  one  aroimd  him,  is  aware  of  his  awkward  move- 
ments; for  he  is  continually  bumping  into  things,  much  to 
his  embarrassment  and  other  people's  annoyance,  and  he  never 
knows  what  to  do  with  his  hands  and  feet.  His  whole  bear- 
ing shows  a  great  lack  of  poise.  In  these  matters  the  girl  is  a 
little  more  fortunate,  although  for  a  year  or  two  she  is  for  her 
size  too  slim  and  wanting  in  womanly  contours,  and  her 
movements  have  lost  the  charm  of  her  childhood  years  and  the 
agility  and  grace  of  her  preadolescence.  It  can  be  seen  without 
measurements  of  any  kind  that  the  different  parts  and  organs 
of  the  body  are  out  of  proportion;  and  careful  observation 
reveals  the  fact  that,  in  the  case  of  any  individual,  each  part 


44  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

seems  to  have  its  own  period  of  acceleration  and  retardation. 
Judging  from  these  seemingly  freakish  manifestations  of  growth, 
one  is  led  to  the  general  conclusion  that,  as  Hall  characteristic- 
ally expresses  it,  growth  is  ''essentially  non-logical  and  for- 
ever inconsistent  with  itself.  The  logic  of  the  schools  is  ex 
post  factoJ'  Thus  these  years  of  early  adolescence  have,  for 
their  superficial  characteristics,  lack  of  proportion  and  lack 
of  poise. 

Since  increase  in  height  and  weight  furnishes  in  a  general 
way  an  index  to  the  growth  of  an  individual,  it  seems  best  to 
begin  our  study  of  the  order  and  manner  of  adolescent  physical 
development  with  an  accoimt  of  the  way  height  and  weight  vary. 
To  begin  with  birth,  during  the  first  years  there  is  a  period 
of  very  rapid  increase  in  height  and  weight  (fifty  to  seventy- 
five  per  cent  the  first  year);  then  comes  a  rapid  falling  off, 
which  in  some  cases  is  twice  as  rapid  the  second  year  as  the 
third.      From  about  three  and  a  half  years  there  comes  a  grad- 

\  *  ual  dropping  of  the  curve  until  the  period  of  preadolescence 
is  reached.     From  eight  to  twelve  the  curve  of  increase  runs 

^  J^lmost  level;  that  is,  the  increase  is  relatively  slow.  Then 
comes  the  sudden  rise  in  the  curve  indicating  the  rapid  growth 
of  the  first  year  of  postpubescence.  A  study  of  height  and 
weight  based  on  the  measurements  of  88,000  pupils  in  the 
schools  of  Boston,  Milwaukee,  St.  Louis,  Oakland,  Cal.,  and 
Toronto  was  made  by  Boas  and  printed  in  the  report  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1896-7.  The  tables  there 
compiled  show  that  boys  are  slightly  taller  and  heavier  than 
girls  of  the  same  age  during  childhood  and  preadolescence; 
a  change  in  relative  height  and  weight  begins  just  before  the 
on-coming  of  puberty;  girls  are  taller  than  boys  from  eleven 
and  a  half  to  fourteen  and  a  half,  and  they  are  heavier  from 
twelve  and  a  half  to  fourteen  and  a  half.  The  crossing  of  the 
curves  of  growth  at  this  time  is  due  to  the  earlier  setting  in 
of  puberty  with  girls  and  the  consequent  earlier  postpubescent 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND   CHARACTERISTICS     45 

acceleration  already  referred  to.  But  boys  continue  to  grow  at 
an  accelerated  rate  for  a  longer  period  than  girls,  hence  over- 
take them,  ultimately  exceeding  them  in  height  and  weight, 
the  difference  being  greater  than  during  childhood.  The  first 
year  after  puberty  is  also  the  time  of  greatest  increase  in  strength. 
With  girls  there  is  very  little  increase  in  height,  and  that  very 
slow,  after  seventeen;  while  boys  continue  to  grow  in  height 
until  nineteen.  After  this  there  is  a  very  slow  increase  in 
height  of  boys  till,  perhaps,  twenty-three  and  in  weight  till 
about  twenty-five.  According  to  Dr.  D.  A.  Sargent  of  Harvard 
University,  "it  is  a  question  whether  most  of  the  weight  ac- 
cumulation after  twenty-five  is  not  more  or  less  abnormal." 
All  the  foregoing  statements  concerning  growth  are  based  on 
the  measurements  of  large  numbers  and  represent  averages; 
whereas  the  growth  of  the  individual  is  frequently  spasmodic. 
However,  those  who  are  working  with  boys  and  girls  and  seek- 
ing their  welfare  must  realize  the  importance  of  these  physical 
norms  as  part  of  their  pedagogical  equipment. 

All  this  increase  in  height  and  weight  means  a  corresponding 
increase  in  nearly  all  the  organs  and  parts  of  the  body,  but, 
as  already  intimated,  the  increase  is  not  usually  proportionate, 
hence  the  necessity  of  studying  the  growth  and  development 
of  the  separate  parts  and  organs,  which  are  found  to  have  differ- 
ent rates  of  increase,  each  having  its  own  period  of  acceleration 
and  retardation.  This  complexity  of  growth  which  obtains 
among  the  various  parts  of  the  body  and  the  consequent  diffi- 
culty that  the  adolescent  experiences  in  making  the  proper  new 
adjustments  accounts  for  his  lack  of  motor-control  and  his 
resulting  ungainly  movements  already  mentioned. 

As  with  the  body  in  general,  so  with  the  bones;  growth  is 
not  a  simple  affair.  In  some  cases  they  grow  longer  and  thicker, 
the  thickening  being  due  to  the  addition  of  new  periosteal  layers; 
in  other  cases  they  take  on  new  shapes;  and  they  change  in 
chemical  composition  while  the  process  of  completing  their 


46  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

ossification  is  going  on.    The  thigh  bone,  the  largest  in  the 
body,  usually  has  the  greatest  growth,  both  relative  and  ab- 
solute; it  grows  in  both  length  and  thickness;  and  the  individ- 
ual's rapid  increase  in  height  is  due  mainly  to  the  lengthening 
of  this  bone.     In  giants  the  thigh  bone  is  most  out  of  propor- 
tion in  length.     At  this  time  the  pelvis  enlarges  and  in  girls 
changes  greatly  in  shape,  the  change  in  its  vertical  axis  being 
one  of  the  first  adolescent  developments  in  the  girl ;  this  change 
leads  to  certain  awkward  movements  and  makes  running  diffi- 
cult.    With  girls  the  development  of  the  pelvis  furnishes  the 
most  exact  index  of  pubertal  development.      Chest  measure- 
ments indicate  that  there  is  a  slight  increase  in  circumference 
during  the  first  two  years  of  adolescence,  and  the  maximum 
rate  of  development  is  reached  at  fifteen  and  continues  until 
nineteen.    In  infancy  the  chest  is  relatively  deepest,  and  it  grows 
broader  and  flatter  till  the  early  teens,  when  its  girth  is  about 
equal  to  the  sitting  height.    The  face  lengthens  about  an  inch 
and  grows  noticeably  broader;   the  distance  between  the  eyes 
increases;    the  lower  jaw  becomes  heavier;    and  the  nose  be- 
comes more  prominent.     These  modifications,  combined  with 
others,  give  rise  to  a  greatly  changed  facial  expression.    The 
bones  and  the  muscles  lead  all  the  other  tissues  of  the  body 
Nboth  in  growth  and  in  complexity  of  development. 

It  is  to  the  muscles  that  the  body  owes  much  of  its  weight 
and  bulk;  and  much  of  the  increase  in  size  and  weight  which 
occurs  at  puberty  is  due  to  growth  of  muscles,  whose  relatively 
rapid  increase  is  shown  by  the  following  figures.  In  a  child 
of  eight  the  muscles  constitute  about  27  per  cent  of  his  weight; 
at  fifteen  they  constitute  nearly  32  per  cent;  and  at  sixteen 
they  have  jumped  to  44  per  cent.  This  great  influx  of  muscular 
energy  gives  rise  to  many  disturbing  effects.  For  a  time  the 
bones  and  the  muscles  appear  to  vie  with  each  other  in  rapidity 
of  growth;  when  the  muscles  forge  ahead,  there  is  a  looseness 
of  muscles  and  the  consequent  clumsiness  and  lack  of  coordina- 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS     47 

tion;  if  the  bones  excel,  we  have  cramps  and  "growing  pains." 
But,  when  this  remarkable  increase  in  size  and  vigor  is  nearing 
completion,  when  coordinations  have  been  established,  and 
when  the  youth  is  again  master  of  his  movements,  the  net  result 
is  a  wonderful  increase  in  all  the  powers  that  fit  him  for  every 
form  of  physical  efifort.  As  Dr.  Hall  expresses  it,  nature  arms 
him  with  "all  the  resources  at  her  command  —  speed,  power 
of  shoulder,  biceps,  back,  leg,  jaw  —  strengthens  and  enlarges 
skull,  thorax,  hips,  makes  man  aggressive  and  prepares  woman's 
frame  for  maternity."  Youth  is  the  golden  age  for  training  in 
muscular  dexterity  and  endurance,  the  time  when  all  the  per- 
manent physical  habits  are  formed,  and  the  time  when  pro- 
gress in  all  kinds  of  bodily  efficiency  must  be  made.  The  rela- 
tion between  muscular  welfare  on  the  one  hand  and  health  and 
efficiency  on  the  other  is  so  close  that  various  systems  of  phys- 
ical education  have  been  worked  out,  giving  almost  exclusive 
regard  to  muscular  development  and  training. 

Because  of  the  disproportionate  growth  of  heart  muscles  and 
arteries  during  adolescence,  there  frequently  arise  temporary 
functional  disturbances.  Sometimes  these  take  the  form  of 
sudden  fluctuation  in  the  rate  of  the  pulse,  palpitation  of  the 
heart,  frequent  headaches,  or  anemia.  All  these  unfavorable 
symptoms  are  caused  by  a  greatly  increased  blood  pressure. 
The  muscles  of  the  heart  relative  to  the  size  of  the  arteries  have 
greatly  increased;  according  to  measurements  made  by  Lan- 
dois,  the  relation  of  the  size  of  the  heart  to  the  size  of  the  arter- 
ies at  birth  is  25  to  20,  at  the  beginning  of  puberty  it  is  140  to 
50,  and  at  maturity  it  is  290  to  61.  Authorities  agree  that 
this  great  change  in  the  ratio  of  the  heart  to  the  arteries  and 
the  consequent  increase  in  blood  pressure  is  of  profound  and 
far-reaching  significance.  The  untoward  and  disquieting  effects 
are  only  incidental  and  occasional,  without  any  danger  of 
structural  derangement;  whereas  the  associated  and  the  aug- 
mented blood  pressure  (and  the  connection  is  doubtless  causal) 


48  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

increases  membolism,  giving  rise  to  the  increased  growth  al- 
ready described,  and  the  physical  and  mental  activity  charac- 
teristic of  the  period.  And  there  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  the  slight  increase  in  temperature  at  puberty,  amounting 
to  half  a  degree  Fahrenheit,  "the  psychic  intensity,"  and  "the 
emotional  prodigality,"  which  will  be  described,  are  results  of 
blood  pressure  and  arterial  tension.  Thus,  it  is  apparent  that 
this  changed  relation  between  the  size  of  the  heart,  which  in- 
creases in  muscular  power  at  about  the  same  rate  as  other  parts 
of  the  body,  and  the  size  of  the  arteries,  in  which  there  is  a 
much  slower  rate  of  growth  (continuing,  however,  long  after 
growth  has  stopped  in  other  parts)  is  fraught  with  great  possibil- 
ities in  the  matter  of  health  and  individual  development  of 
every  kind;  opinion  favors  the  theory  that  the  earlier  and 
more  marked  the  growth  of  heart  muscles,  the  earlier,  more 
vigorous,  and  more  complete  the  development  at  puberty. 

As  we  might  expect  from  the  decided  enlargement  and  broad- 
ening of  the  thorax  already  referred  to,  there  is  much  growth, 
as  well  as  development,  of  the  lungs  during  adolescence;  this 
is  shown  by  weight  of  lung  tissues,  which  constitutes  in  child- 
hood one  and  a  half  to  two  per  cent  of  the  body  weight  and  in 
maturity  two  and  one  half  to  three  and  two  fifths  per  cent.  By 
use  of  the  spirometer,  the  lung  capacity  and  the  breathing  ca- 
pacity of  a  large  number  of  people  at  all  ages  have  been  ascer- 
tained with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy.  This  capacity, 
taken  in  connection  with  body  weight,  gives  us  an  index  of 
general  vitality.  The  measurements  of  a  large  number  of 
pupils  indicate  that  the  breathing  capacity  of  girls  increases 
rapidly  from  twelve  to  fourteen,  after  which  the  rate  of  in- 
crease diminishes  till  about  twenty;  and  that  boys  take  a  sud- 
den start  at  fourteen  and  increase  very  rapidly  till  sixteen, 
with  a  slower  increase  till  about  nineteen  and  a  half,  the  max- 
imum of  forced  expiration  coming  at  sixteen.  All  experiments 
show  that  chest  and  lung  development  respond  very  quickly 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND   CHARACTERISTICS     49 

to  timely  training  in  the  form  of  proper  exercises.  Boys  seem 
to  have  a  marked  advantage  over  girls  in  capacity  for  chest 
and  lung  development  by  training,  always  showing  superior 
expansive  power. 

The  change  of  voice  which  occurs  at  puberty  is  one  of  the 
most  obvious  characteristics  of  the  period,  being  most  marked 
with  boys.  It  is  due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  the  larynx,  with  a 
corresponding  lengthening  of  the  vocal  chords  to  approximately 
double  their  former  length;  according  to  a  well-known  law  in 
physics,  the  result  is  a  drop  of  an  octave  in  the  pitch  of  the 
voice.  There  comes  also  at  this  time  an  increase  in  volume 
and  usually  a  pleasanter  quality.  With  the  boy  it  usually 
requires  two  years  to  get  full  control  of  his  new  voice  in  the 
lower  register;  during  these  two  years  he  often  suffers  consid- 
erable embarrassment  by  reason  of  the  characteristic  roughness 
and  occasional  unexpected  "breaking."  The  change  of  pitch 
in  girls  is  slight,  but  there  is  a  very  noticeable  increase  in  full- 
ness and  richness  of  quality. 

But  the  organ,  which,  for  the  purpose  of  our  study,  as  well 
as  for  the  individual,  has  by  far  the  greatest  interest  is  the 
brain.  To  our  surprise,  there  is  practically  no  increase  in  weight 
or  size  at  adolescence.  Yet  there  must  occur  at  this  time  man- 
ifold changes  and  remarkable  developments  in  complexity. 
The  adolescent  is  impelled  by  new  instincts;  he  is  alive  with 
new  emotions  and  ideals;  his  intellectual  grasp  increases  by 
leaps  and  bounds;  he  is  moved  by  motives  which  were  abso- 
lutely unknown  and  meaningless  to  him  before;  and  there 
comes  to  him  a  new  and  sometimes  insatiable  thirst  for  ex- 
perience. For  all  this  psychic  development  there  must  be  a 
physical  basis;  hence  by  impUcation,  if  there  were  no  other 
way  of  knowing,  there  must  take  place  marvelous  structural 
developments  in  the  cells  and  fibers  of  the  maturing  brain. 
It  is  clear  that  there  are  at  least  two  psychic  phenomena  to 
account  for;  namely,  (i)  the  awakening  of  new  instincts  with 


50  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

their  resultant  emotions  and  (2)  the  elaborating  of  intellectual 
life  in  general  and  the  marvelous  possibilities  for  the  individual 
that  lie  in  this  direction.  Even  before  the  remarkable  studies 
of  brain  structure  made  by  Donaldson,  Kaiser,  Cajal,  Vulpius, 
Kaes,  Flechsig,  and  others,  it  was  supposed  that  important 
modifications  occur  during  adolescence,  the  significant  changes 
setting  in  at  the  beginning  of  puberty;  since  increase  in  mass  is 
slight,  it  was  reasoned  that  the  great  functional  changes  must 
be  due  to  an  evolution  of  texture  or  change  in  chemical  consti- 
tution or  both. 

But  what  have  the  studies  referred  to  revealed?  There  is 
now  no  doubt  about  the  processes  of  cell  division  being  com- 
pleted at  birth.  During  the  pubertal  period  the  number  of 
mature  cells  doubles,  the  new  cells  being  developed  from  gran- 
ules; and,  according  to  the  same  authority,  Kaiser,  followed  by 
Hall,  "in  the  boy  of  fifteen,  the  volume  of  cell  bodies  is  already, 
on  the  average,  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  times  their  size 
at  birth";  thus  there  occurs  during  a  year  or  two  of  early  ado- 
lescence a  remarkable  and  significant  cell  development  in  the 
form  of  functional  maturing  and  probably  awakening  of  brain 
tracts  hitherto  dormant.  All  this  accounts  for  the  new  in- 
stinctive tendencies  and  new  emotional  experiences,  which 
come  to  occupy  the  center  of  the  psychic  stage  and  so  largely 
dominate  the  conduct.  But,  while  these  important  cell  and 
tract  developments  are  taking  place,  there  is  going  on  an  equally 
important  extension  and  ramification  of  the  fiber  processes, 
especially  into  the  higher  thought-areas  of  association.  First 
come  the  tangental  fibers,  connecting  the  different  parts  of 
the  cortex;  then  the  systems  of  fibers  among  the  cortical  cells 
slowly  evolve,  the  evolution  of  some  continuing  until  late  in 
life.  It  seems  certain,  also,  that  the  later  years  of  adolescence 
are  almost  as  epochful  as  the  earlier  years,  since  the  brain  in- 
creases enormously  in  complexity  after  sixteen,  the  growth 
extending  into  regions  that  were  less  rich  in  early  adolescence. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND   CHARACTERISTICS      51 

This  rapid  extension  and  developing  complexity  of  the  various 
fiber  systems  seem  naturally  to  furnish  the  physical  basis  for 
the  growth  of  intelligence  which  characterizes  adolescence  and 
takes  the  form  of  rational  thought,  higher  logical  correlation, 
independence  in  opinion,  and  esthetic  appreciation.  Thus  it 
would  appear  that  Aristotle  was  wise,  without  knowing  the 
physical  basis  of  his  doctrine,  in  assigning  fourteen  as  the  age 
at  which  the  education  of  reason  should  begin. 

The  correctness  of  all  the  inferences  just  made  relative  to 
the  causal  relations  existing  between  known  developments  of 
brain  structure  and  the  rapidly  maturing  psychical  powers 
finds  much  support  in  the  fact  that  poor  nutrition,  from  what- 
ever cause,  always  checks  the  structural  development  of  the 
brain  and  retards  in  a  serious  way  nearly  all  mental  growth; 
hence  the  inference  that  the  two  phenomena  just  described,  not 
only  parallel  each  other,  but  are  causally  related.  Beyond 
doubt,  the  foregoing  emphasizes  the  fact  that  this  is  the  forma- 
tive period  of  life;  and  we  have,  as  James  and  others  have 
pointed  out,  in  this  structural  maturing  of  the  brain  the  physio- 
logical basis  of  personal  development;  it  is  the  time  par-ex- 
cellent to  "help  nature." 

Now  what  is  the  relation  between  all  this  rapid  physical 
growth  with  its  accompanying  development  and  the  health  of 
the  adolescent?  This  is  certainly  a  practical  question  for  all 
who  have  to  do  with  high-school  pupils  and  high-school  prob- 
lems. The  opinion  seems  to  be  pretty  common  that  this  is  a 
critical  period  for  the  physical  as  well  as  the  moral  welfare  of 
the  individual,  and  in  a  certain  sense  this  is  true.  The  early 
years  of  adolescence  are  said  to  be  "  the  grand  court  of  appeal 
by  which  weak  children  are  weeded  out  and  only  those  who 
have  sufficient  vitality  for  life's  battles  renew  their  strength 
and  continue  their  development."  This  statement  applies, 
perhaps,  more  correctly  to  girls,  for  some  of  whom  pubescence 
is  a  real  physical  crisis.    In  general  there  is  an  abatement  of 


52  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

the  diseases  of  childhood  and  an  increasing  liability  to  the  dis- 
eases of  maturity;    and  statistics  show  a  high  percentage  of 
ill  health,  but  a  low  percentage  of  deaths.     Both  observation 
and  vital  statistics  tend  to  prove  that  the  vital  forces  have  ac- 
quired a  momentum  considerably  greater  than  ever  before; 
consequently  a  very  high  percentage  of  both  sexes  pass  through 
the  crisis  safely.    The  most  effective  way  of  measuring  vitality 
is  to  compare  the  ratio  of  the  number  that  live  to  the  number 
that  die  at  different  ages.    Dr.  Hartwell's  study  of  the  pupils 
of  the  Boston  schools  shows  that  for  girls  the  lowest  death  rate 
comes  at  twelve  and  for  boys  at  thirteen,  the  ratio  being  about 
three  hundred  to  one;  while  at  the  ages  of  eight  and  seventeen 
it  is  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  to  one.     If  for  any  reason 
the  physiological  maturing  comes  later,  the  characteristic  vi- 
tality and  health  also  appear  later.    Thus,  for  the  time  that  is 
generally  considered  the  most  critical  for  health,  vitahty,  as 
determined  by  mortality  tables  based  on  the  Boston  studies, 
is  almost  twice  as  great  as  at  any  other  time  from  birth  to  ma- 
turity.   Axel  Key  reached  practically  the  same  results  from  his 
study  in  the  Swedish  schools.    However,  vitality  and  good 
health  are  not  necessarily  concomitants  at  any  time  in  life; 
many  people  live  a  long  life  of  invalidism,  and  their  robust 
neighbors  die  in  their  prime.    At  early  adolescence  the  low 
death  rate  and  the  accompanying  rapid  growth,  with  the  signifi- 
cant structural  and  functional  changes,  are  but  the  outward 
expression  of  the  deep-lying,  strong,  vital  current,  which  at 
this  time  manifests  a  vigor  unknown  anywhere  else  in  nature. 
But,  if  one  recalls  the  manner  and  conditions  of  physical 
growth  during  adolescence,  it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  some 
individuals,  more  especially  girls,  are  subject  to  various  dis- 
turbances and  minor  ailments.     The  continuously  varying  and 
disproportionate   growth   of   the  different  parts   and  organs 
of  the  body   must   naturally   result   in   unusual   strain   and 
consequent  tendency  to  functional  derangement.    The  rapid 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS     53 

growth  of  the  large  muscles  of  the  body  incident  to  adolescence 
and  the  violent  activity  incited  by  this  growth  call  for  much 
additional  nourishment  and  place  a  greatly  augmented  strain 
on  the  digestive  and  circulatory  systems;  disturbed  digestion 
always  brings  its  retinue  of  troubles;  and,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
heart,  due  to  structural  changes,  is  called  upon  to  pump  much 
harder  than  ever  before,  its  work  being  frequently  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  naturally  strong  tendency  at  this  time  toward 
athleticism.  Then,  too,  the  new  emotional  life,  based  on  the 
developing  instincts,  which  sets  in  at  this  time,  gives  rise  to 
many  psychological  manifestations  which  act  as  disturbing 
causes,  these  manifestations  being  thus  both  cause  and  effect. 
So  it  is  that,  while  life's  current  flows  strongest,  the  eddies  and 
surgings  of  the  stream  are  present,  agitating  and  troubling  the 
waters;  great  intensity  of  life  with  its  compelling  impulses  is 
not  naturally  conducive  to  either  physical  or  spiritual  tran- 
quiUty. 

This  chapter  might  come  to  a  close  here;  for  this  ends  the 
account  of  the  marvelous  and  significant  physiological  changes 
and  characteristics  of  adolescence;  but  it  seems  best  to  add  a 
few  practical  inferences,  although  these  will  be  developed  more 
fully  in  the  appropriate  chapters  of  Part  Second  of  this  book. 

The  rapidly  advancing  science  of  medicine  has  discovered 
the  cause,  course,  consequences,  and  cure  for  many  specific 
diseases  with  which  man  has  long  contended  in  his  struggle 
for  existence;  but  it  is  a  biological  question  that  confronts  us 
here  rather  than  a  pathological  condition.  The  great  floods  of 
vital  energy  and  the  consequent  exuberance  and  enthusiasm 
are  Ukely  to  mislead  teachers  and  parents,  as  well  as  the  youth, 
into  beUeving  that  he  can  endure  anything.  This  is  the  time, 
too,  when  the  individual,  for  reasons  already  explained,  is 
especially  susceptible  to  over  stimulation  of  many  kinds;  there 
is  a  strong  desire  for  intense  states  of  mind,  this  tendency  being 
reflected  in  the  extravagant  use  of  superlatives.    Also  the  com- 


54  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

plexity  of  modern  life,  with  its  increased  industrial  and  social 
demands,  has  come  to  be  responsible  for  considerable  trouble; 
it  certainly  is  at  least  a  contributing  cause  of  much  of  the  ill 
health  and  physical  derangements  incident  to  adolescence, 
not  to  mention  the  wreckage  of  body,  mind,  and  morals.  How- 
ever, there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  all  would  gener- 
ally go  well  if  the  vital  forces  were  conserved  and  not  allowed 
to  overflow  into  the  many  side  channels.  The  amount  of  en- 
ergy present  and  in  action  is  now  very  great,  but  the  demands 
are  also  very  great  and  extremely  urgent. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  a  comparatively  early  and 
somewhat  prolonged  pubescent  period  is  better  for  individual 
development  and  is  fraught  with  fewer  dangers  and  less  func- 
tional disturbance  than  one  deferred  to  the  middle  or  later 
teens,  late  maturing  often  leading  to  more  disquietude  and 
irritation  and  to  a  loss  in  development  never  completely  made 
up.  This,  then,  suggests  a  rule  of  conduct:  prepare  for  an  early 
and  safe  entrance  upon  adolescence  by  establishing  and  main- 
taining wholesome  and  hygienic  conditions  during  preadoles- 
cence,  when  the  mental  and  physical  forces  are  naturally  well 
adjusted  to  environment  and  there  is  little  that  tends  to  dis- 
turb the  equilibrium  of  the  self-centered  individual. 

From  what  has  been  said  concerning  the  growth  and  chang- 
ing composition  of  the  bones,  it  would  appear  that  the  system 
during  adolescence  needs  a  differently  proportioned  supply 
of  mineral  matter;  lime  especially  seems  to  be  required,  the 
effect  of  this  demand  showing  in  the  "lime  hunger"  sometimes 
noticed.  These  special  calls,  to  meet  the  changing  needs  of 
the  growing  bones,  carry  with  them  a  practical  suggestion  con- 
cerning diet.  And  since  the  shape  and  development  of  the 
bones  are  affected  by  posture  and  strains  of  every  kind,  as  well 
as  by  nutrition,  much  care  must  be  taken  with  regard  to  sleeping, 
sitting,  and  walking  positions,  and  any  mode  of  dressing  that 
tends  to  interfere  with  the  natural  development  of  the  bones. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND  CHARACTERISTICS      55 

Because  of  the  circulatory  disturbances  consequent  upon  the 
change  of  ratio  between  heart  muscles  and  the  size  of  the  ar- 
teries with  the  resulting  effects,  the  heart  doubtless  needs  even 
more  consideration  than  the  changing  skeleton.  The  fact  that 
there  is  during  adolescence  serious  danger  of  over-developing 
the  muscles  of  the  heart  has  recently  been  forcing  itself  upon 
experts  of  various  kinds;  this  danger  is  greatest  with  boys. 
The  seriousness  of  the  derangement  is  not  apparent  until  some 
time  after  the  strenuous  series  of  exertions  causing  the  trouble 
has  ceased  and  the  demands  upon  the  heart  are  again  normal, 
there  being  usually  no  evidences  of  the  evil  while  the  heart 
muscles  are  building  up.  More  will  be  said  of  this  in  Chapter 
XV,  where  practical  suggestions  will  be  made  concerning  its 
regimen. 

Breathing  capacity,  or  vital  capacity,  as  it  is  often  called, 
may  be  developed  by  proper  exercise  and  training  more  than 
any  other  physical  capacity.  Chest  and  lung  development 
is  exceedingly  desirable  for  the  purpose  of  endurance  and  in 
order  to  be  ready  to  meet  the  physical  emergencies  of  life. 
Training  in  proper  breathing,  vigorous  exercise  of  any  kind  in 
the  open  air  continued  for  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  and  ha- 
bitually good  posture  of  the  body  will  secure  for  any  one  the 
maximum  development  of  chest  and  lungs. 

Music  teachers  have  long  discussed  the  question  as  to  whether 
voice  training  should'  continue  with  boys  during  the  process 
of  voice  mutation.  Opinions  of  the  best  authorities  now 
pretty  well  agree  with  the  findings  and  conclusion  reached 
by  Dr.  Morell  MacKensie  in  his  Hygiene  of  the  Vocal  Organs^ 
he  believes  that  singing  may  continue  without  any  bad  effects 
if  care  is  taken  not  to  attempt  very  high  or  very  low  notes.  It 
is  unfortunate  to  neglect  any  training  during  this  plastic  period 
that  will  favorably  affect  the  speaking  voice;  for,  due  to  many 
causes  that  have  often  been  discussed,  American  boys  and  girls 
are  inclined  to  develop  voices  that  are  anything  but  effective 


56  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

and  pleasant.  There  appears  a  little  later,  according  to  Dr. 
Hall,  a  new  vocal  consciousness,  shown  by  the  great  satisfac- 
tion that  both  boys  and  girls  often  exhibit  in  all  kinds  of  vocal 
experiments,  such  as  yodeling  and  passing  abruptly  from  one 
pitch  to  the  extreme  opposite.  The  new  interest  in  voice  pos- 
sibilities seems  to  point  clearly  to  the  notion  that  the  time  is 
ripe  for  the  training  so  much  desired. 

The  digestive  troubles  that  sometimes  appear  during  early 
adolescence  should  be  transitory  and  unimportant,  ceasing  when 
their  causes  no  longer  exist;  and  it  is  believed  that  they  would 
soon  disappear  if  a  plain  and  regular  diet  were  maintained, 
instead  of  yielding  to  the  capricious  appetite  characteristic  of 
the  period,  which  calls  for  many  unwholesome  articles,  such 
as  pickles  and  rich  and  highly  seasoned  foods.  If  these  diges- 
tive derangements  are  allowed  to  continue,  they  become  deep- 
seated  and  cause  much  misery  and  inefficiency  throughout 
life. 

In  discussing  nervous  disorders  of  a  functional  kind,  it  must 
at  once  be  conceded  that  the  schools  have  been  guilty  of  causing 
much  harm,  which  better  knowledge  and  practice  must  avoid. 
Much  of  the  work  of  the  modern  school  calls  for  an  almost  con- 
tinuous use  of  the  small  accessory  muscles,  those  that  "wag 
the  tongue  and  pen,"  to  the  exclusion  of  the  larger  muscles; 
and  this,  in  the  opinion  of  the  experts,  has  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  hundred  or  more  automatisms,  such  as  stammering,  biting 
the  nails,  picking  the  face,  winking,  and  grimacing,  all  examples 
of  dissociated  activities  involving  the  use  of  the  smaller  mus- 
cles and  indicating  a  lack  of  coordination  and  control.  The 
rapid  growth  of  the  larger  muscles  during  early  adolescence 
demands  much  physical  activity  of  a  vigorous  kind;  the  de- 
mand is  strongly  felt  by  both  boys  and  girls;  and  their  systems 
instinctively  rebel  against  the  fundamental  muscles  remaining 
inactive  for  long  periods  of  time,  and,  because  of  the  unnatural 
restraint,  these  automatisms  appear,  as  it  were,  in  lieu  of  the 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AND   CHARACTERISTICS     57 

much-needed  larger  movements.  It  seems  to  be  nature's  form 
of  protest  against  the  impertinent  demands  of  the  modern 
school.  It  is  true  that  these  automatisms  are  somewhat  prev- 
alent during  childhood;  but,  as  J.  W.  Slaughter  urges,  adoles- 
cence is  the  last  chance  to  cure  them;  for  during  the  rapid  growth 
of  early  adolescence  *'  the  muscular  system  and  its  neural  coun- 
terpart undergo  extensive  rearrangements."  There  are  clearly 
two  things  necessary  to  keep  matters  right,  considerable  vig- 
orous exercise  of  the  larger  muscles  and  much  sleep;  the  best 
sleep  comes  from  the  fatigue  of  the  fundamental  muscles, 
*' whereas  fatigue  of  the  accessory  muscles  produces  that  over- 
wrought nervous  condition  which  is  a  great  enemy  of  sleep  at 
all  times  of  life." 

In  presenting  these  suggestions  concerning  the  hygiene  of 
adolescence,  there  has  been  an  attempt  to  follow  the  best  and 
latest  that  science  has  to  offer;  but  it  is  a  case  where  the 
promptings  of  common-sense  relative  to  the  best  way  of  living 
are  in  close  agreement  with  science.  As  we  have  seen  repeatedly, 
adolescence  is  the  formative  period  in  the  life  of  an  individual 
in  all  matters, — physical,  mental,  social,  moral — but  in  none  is 
it  more  vitally  formative  than  in  the  matter  of  health  and 
growth;  these  condition  all  the  others;  science  and  common- 
sense  both  say,  make  health  and  growth  paramount.  The 
general  rules  of  health,  which  have  long  been  well  known,  apply 
admirably  to  the  needs  of  the  adolescent.  To  meet  success- 
fully the  sudden  strain  of  the  period,  the  youth  must  have  fresh 
air,  nourishing  and  varied  food,  much  quiet  sleep,  freedom  from 
worry,  regular,  healthy  work  (if  possible  part  of  it  in  the  open 
air),  and  a  relatively  large  amount  of  wholesome  social  enjoy- 
ment. This  all  sounds  common-place,  but  it  is  strictly  scien- 
tific. 


CHAPTER  V 
MENTAL  GROWTH  AND   RECONSTRUCTION 

An  attempt  was  made  in  the  preceding  chapter  to  show  that 
the  maturing  of  the  functions  of  sex  is  the  central  fact  and  driv- 
ing power  of  all  the  wonderful  physical  growth  and  the  struc- 
tural and  functional  changes  that  characterize  adolescence. 
It  is  important  at  this  point  to  appreciate  the  significance  of 
the  fact  that  this  physiological  maturing,  with  the  consequent 
physical  growth  and  development,  is,  not  only  the  background, 
but  in  a  very  fundamental  way,  the  cause  of  the  psychic  growth 
and  reconstruction  now  to  be  described.  The  appearance  of 
the  sex  functions,  the  physical  growth,  and  the  mental  develop- 
ment are  closely  connected  and  vitally  bound  together,  so 
that  any  cause  which  retards  or  in  any  way  interferes  with 
either  of  the  first  two  influences  in  a  corresponding  manner 
interferes  with  the  third.  The  mental  reconstruction  which 
is  due  at  this  time  is  so  marked  and  fundamental  in  its  nature 
that  the  term  "new  birth"  is  still  applicable,  the  only  difference 
being  that  we  pass  from  the  realm  of  the  physical  to  that  ot 
the  spiritual.  As  Hall  asserts,  "the  floodgates  of  heredity  are 
thrown  open  again  as  in  infancy;"  if  we  accept  the  recapitula- 
tion theory,  youth  rapidly  repeats  the  experiences  of  a  "later 
and  more  human  ancestry;"  "heredity  is  bestowing  its  latest 
and  therefore  highest  gifts;"  hence  this  is  the  time  when  a 
new  and  unique  mental  life  should  be  taking  shape. 

It  was  found,  on  the  physiological  side,  that  adolescence 
means,  along  with  the  general  growth  in  height  and  weight, 
a  more  or  less  independent  change  in  size  and  function  of  every 
part  and  organ  of  the  body,  the  variation  in  rate  of  growth 

58 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  59 

being  so  marked  that  it  would  almost  seem  that  first  one  organ 
and  then  another  obtains  a  temporary  monopoly  of  the  supply 
of  nutrition.  When  we  pass  to  the  mental  life  of  this  period, 
we  find  something  quite  analogous;  psychic  life,  too,  appears 
to  grow  in  segments,  as  indicated  by  the  erratic  manner  in 
which  the  intellectual  interests  and  occupations  of  this  period 
change;  and  this  shifting  of  the  mental  focus  may  be  taken  as 
one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  phase  of  adolescence  we  are 
now  to  study.  To  the  observer  this  frequent  changing  of  the 
intellectual  interests  may  have  the  appearance  of  whim  or  fad; 
but  it  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  laws  of  mental  development 
during  adolescence.  While  the  interest  holds,  there  is  usually 
great  concentration  with  its  consequent  advantages  for  mental 
training. 

But  more  fimdamental  than  this  growth  of  the  mind  by  sec- 
tions is  the  entirely  new  attitude  toward  life  itself  which  is 
manifested  at  this  time.  In  six  months  the  adolescent  adopts 
new  companions  and  indulges  in  new  forms  of  amusement; 
the  color  fades  from  his  juvenile  sympathies;  his  intellectual 
curiosity  is  quickened  and  seeks  new  fields;  he  thinks  new 
thoughts,  and  becomes  passionately  eager  to  understand  the 
material  and  social  worlds  in  which  he  finds  himself;  he  wants 
to  "get  behind  the  scenes"  and  learn  how  the  machinery  works; 
new  powers  and  faculties  are  born,  which  begin  at  once  to  play 
upon  problems  more  complex  or  before  non-existent;  the  old 
landmarks,  which  served  so  efficiently  in  his  preadolescent 
days,  are  rapidly  vanishing,  and  he  instinctively  and  eagerly 
looks  for  new  ones;  life  moves  on  a  higher  level,  for  early  adoles- 
cence is  "the  infancy  of  man's  higher  nature;"  and  above  all 
a  new  emotional  life,  naturally  very  ardent,  makes  its  appear- 
ance. The  boy  has  become  a  man;  the  girl  has  become  a 
woman. 

As  already  indicated,  all  this  is  so  vitally  dependent  upon 
the  change  from  an  asexual  to  a  sexual  life  that  we  logically 


6o  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

proceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  sex  instincts  which  now  ap- 
pear. 

Biological  science  makes  a  distinction  between  the  structural 
and  functional  characteristics  that  are  directly  involved  in 
the  reproductive  processes  and  those  which  are  only  accessory 
and  aid  the  process  in  some  indirect  way;  these  are  known  in 
science  as  the  primary  characters  and  the  secondary  characters 
of  sex.  This  scientific  distinction  is  important  in  both  psycho- 
logical and  pedagogical  discussion  respecting  the  influence  of 
sex.  The  primary  instincts  are  those  directly  concerned  with 
race  preservation  and  are  not  pertinent  to  the  present  study. 
But  a  knowledge  of  the  secondary  sex  characters  is  important 
for  this  discussion,  and  especially  from  a  pedagogical  viewpoint. 
In  general  these  secondary  instincts  are  manifested  in  the  form 
of  attempted  adornment  and  many  modes  of  "showing  off." 
The  boy  enjoys  putting  forth  his  best  efforts  in  all  forms  of 
physical  prowess  when  in  the  presence  of  the  opposite  sex:  he 
runs  faster,  plays  the  game  harder,  and  steps  with  a  more  manly 
and  dashing  stride.  Girls,  on  their  part,  are  more  painstaking 
in  their  appearance:  they  walk  and  sit  more  gracefully,  in- 
dulge in  more  smiles,  and  speak  with  softer  and  more  richly 
cadenced  tones.  Each  is  naturally  brighter  and  more  alert 
when  in  the  other's  presence.  Again,  the  desire  for  travel  and 
in  general  the  impulse  to  widen  the  social  horizon,  so  character- 
istic of  adolescence,  are  examples  of  the  same  secondary  sex 
characters.  It  is  not  claimed  that  the  individual  is  always 
conscious  of  the  connection  between  these  various  accessory  sex 
manifestations  and  his  sex  life;  but  the  chief  motor  force  is 
the  developing  sex  instinct,  and  the  real  connections  are  readily 
seen  in  most  instances  by  the  student  of  these  phenomena. 

There  is  an  interesting  analogy  between  these  secondary  sex 
traits  as  they  appear  in  the  human  family  and  what  occurs  in 
the  animal  kingdom  at  the  mating  season.  Dr.  Hall  has  called 
attention  to  how  at  this  time  the  whole  animal  world  becomes 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  6l 

more  beautiful,  and  "life  overflows  in  bright  colors."  Crests, 
combs,  wattles,  erectile  hairs,  horns,  bright  spots,  increased 
plumage,  and  all  the  other  adornments  of  animal  life  indicate 
"high  blood  pressure  and  increased  tension  of  life"  and  "herald 
the  spring-time  awakening;  and  the  air  is  full  of  the  season's 
mating  noises  and  sweet  songs;  almost  every  animal  becomes 
vocal  and  many  become  charming  because  of  new  color  or 
form." 

Very  interesting  and  subtile  are  the  endless  ramifications  and 
irradiations  of  the  sex  instinct  in  mental  life,  but  they  must 
not  be  interpreted  in  any  narrow  sense.  Without  doubt  for 
a  time  the  influence  of  sex  maturing  naturally  occupies  in  the 
mental  life  of  the  adolescent  a  central  and  dominant  place; 
but,  if  his  life  is  hygienic,  his  social  surroundings  wholesome,  and 
if  he  has  opportunities  for  normal  self-expression,  the  instincts 
expand  and  become  diffused,  irradiating  many  allied  fields  and 
interests;  they  enrich  the  life  in  later  youth  and  are  the  elements 
from  which  are  built  up  the  more  pleasing  phases  of  personality. 
These  secondary  impulses  sometimes  find  expression  in  a  new 
appreciation  of  nature,  poetry,  and  art.  It  is  at  this  time  that 
"mother  nature  again  takes  her  child  upon  her  knee"  and  gives 
lessons  necessary  to  the  perfect  rounding  out  of  the  individual. 
It  is  from  this  source  that  the  finer  human  sentiments  take 
their  rise,  and  esthetic  enjoyment  and  expression  have  here 
their  beginning. 

But  life  at  this  time  is  generally  fraught  with  many  perils 
as  well  as  great  possibilities.  _  Months  of  dangerous  mental 
and  emotional  turmoil  are  not  uncommon.  Knowledge  of 
self  is  less  adequate  now  than  at  any  other  period  of  life;  for 
the  inner  world  is  changed  and  continually  changing,  and  the 
outer  world  has  taken  on  new  aspects,  while  the  ego  is  trying 
to  find  a  new  center.  The  intellect,  although  rapidly  gaining 
in  vigor,  is  far  from  supreme  at  this  time;  it  is  darkened 
by  the  storm-clouds  of  new  sensations  and  strange  passions, 


62  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

and  desire  often  betrays  the  judgment.  Moreover,  the  mind 
is  doubtless  pushed  and  pulled  by  the  old  desires  and  ancient 
hates  of  ancestors  that  many  thousand  years  ago  struggled  for 
a  higher  human  life.  And,  most  unfortunately  and  inexcusably, 
all  the  adolescent  tastes  and  instinctive  tendencies  have  been 
commercialized  in  many  harmful  and  attractive  forms:  the 
public  dance-hall,  with  its  dangerous  associations;  the  cheap, 
sensational  novel,  with  its  vivid  suggestiveness;  the  low-class 
theater,  with  its  immodest  costumes  and  questionable  plays; 
and  other  institutions  that  are  worse.  All  these  stand  ready 
to  influence  the  thinking,  if  not  the  conduct,  of  adolescents 
for  whom  they  were  ingeniously  devised. 

Because  for  several  years  so  many  mental  processes  center 
in  sex  and  its  functions  and  thus  endanger  the  adolescent,  it 
is  very  urgent  that  those  responsible  should  be  alert  to  see  that 
the  normal  course  of  development  is  not  thwarted  and  that 
the  sex  susceptibilities  and  impulses  of  the  period  are  "long- 
circuited,"  as  Hall  expresses  it;  that  is,  that  they  are  dispersed 
by  providing  abundant  opportunities  for  safely  satisfying  the 
expanding  nature.  This  can  often  be  done  by  carefully  managed 
athletic  competition,  wholesome  literature  that  really  appeals, 
work  in  debating,  musical  organizations,  dancing  imder  proper 
conditions,  and  any  other  form  of  activity  that  will  keep  the 
mind  healthfully  occupied  and  make  the  proper  social  appeal. 
But  it  must  be  admitted,  as  Jane  Addams  suggests,  "It  is 
neither  a  short  nor  an  easy  undertaking  to  substitute  the  love 
of  beauty  for  mere  desire,  to  place  the  mind  above  the  senses; 
but  is  not  this  the  sum  of  the  immemorial  obligation  which 
rests  upon  the  adults  of  each  generation  if  they  would  nurture 
and  restrain  the  youth,  and  has  not  the  whole  history  of  civil- 
ization been  but  one  long  effort  to  substitute  psychic  impulsion 
for  the  driving  force  of  blind  appetite?"  In  order  to  be  ready 
and  competent  to  render  to  rapidly  developing  youths  the  ser- 
vices so  much  needed  to  guide  their  mental  life  into  safe  and 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  6^ 

fruitful  paths,  it  would  seem  necessary,  as  part  of  the  equipment, 
to  have  a  thorough  and  sympathetic  knowledge  of  the  psychol- 
ogy of  this  critical  period;  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  and  the 
next  two  chapters  will  aid  somewhat  in  giving  this  knowledge. 
Sex  education  is  discussed  in  Chapter  XVIII. 

There  are  many  peculiar  and  seemingly  anomalous  examples 
of  the  long-circuiting  of  the  sex  instincts,  already  referred  to, 
that  emerge  at  puberty  and  develop  during  adolescence.  Some 
of  these  long-circuitings  take  the  form  of  sex  charms  and  fet- 
ishes, of  which  Dr.  Hall  gives  a  full  and  interesting  account. 
The  characteristics  which  tend  to  arouse  the  strangely  com- 
pelUng  likes  and  dislikes  of  this  period  of  sex  susceptibility  are 
frequently  the  most  trivial  matters,  but  they  always  seem  to 
have  to  do  with  personal  appearance  in  some  way.  It  is  imder- 
stood  that  the  traits  or  features  classed  as  charms  or  fetishes  do 
not  in  any  way  affect  their  possessor  biologically.  According 
to  the  study  of  these  secondary  qualities  made  by  Hall,  the 
traits  mediating  for  sexual  attraction  on  young  men  or  women 
in  their  teens  stand  in  the  following  order:  eyes,  hair,  stature 
and  size,  feet,  brows,  complexion,  cheeks,  form  of  head,  throat, 
ears,  chin,  hands,  neck,  nose,  nails  and  fingers,  shape  of  the 
face.  The  tastes  at  this  time  of  life  are  often  strangely  special- 
ized; a  large  per  cent  lay  much  stress  upon  the  color  of  the 
hair,  or  the  length  of  the  eye  lashes,  or  the  condition  of  the 
finger  nails  or  teeth,  or  the  contour  of  the  neck,  or  the  manner 
of  walking,  or  the  quality  of  the  voice,  or  the  mode  of  laughing, 
or  some  other  trait  or  feature  just  as  non-essential,  yet  consti- 
tuting the  basic  material  for  romantic  love.  Hall's  study  shows 
also  that  dislikes  are  just  as  striking  and  their  basis  equally 
trivial;  they  include  features,  ways  of  dressing,  personal  habits, 
and  mannerisms. 

The  skilful  novelist  makes  his  readers  aware  of  how  strangely 
the  adolescent's  mind  moves  in  these  matters,  how  powerfully 
they  influence  him,  and  how  they  are  woven  into  his  ideal  of 


64  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

personal  beauty  and  attractiveness;  thus  in  the  carefully  writ- 
ten descriptions  of  the  heroes  and  heroines  particular  mention 
is  made  of  many  insignificant  details;  these  details  are  exhib- 
ited, not  as  they  affect  people  in  general,  but  as  they  dominate 
the  mind  of  the  one  who  is  coming  under  the  influence  of  their 
possessor.  The  probable  explanation  of  these  seemingly  ab- 
surd special  preferences  and  strange  whims  of  the  adolescent 
is  that  they  are  associated  unconsciously  with  an  attractive 
personality  of  the  opposite  sex  and  "instinctively  organized 
as  parts  of  a  larger  whole,"  thus  becoming  fused  and  identified 
with  the  personality;  that  is,  the  peculiar  influence,  which 
sometimes  amounts  to  a  sex  fetish,  is  due  to  its  setting  rather 
than  the  trait  or  quahty  which  appears  to  constitute  the  charm. 

Furthermore,  these  traits  which  were  during  the  earlier  part  of 
the  period  objects  of  direct  attraction  frequently  become  greatly 
modified  or  even  reversed  in  their  influence  over  the  mind,  so 
that  the  final  choice  of  a  life  companion  may  fall  upon  an  in- 
dividual with  an  opposite  set  of  quahties  and  characteristics 
from  those  which  constituted  the  more  youthful  ideal;  this 
modification  or  reversal  is  likely  to  occur  as  the  end  of  the  ado- 
lescent period  approaches.  This  phenomenon  connected  with 
the  long-circuiting  of  the  sex  instincts  appears  to  support  the 
explanation  of  the  erratic  workings  of  the  adolescent  mind 
offered  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  At  any  rate,  because  of 
the  strangeness  of  the  whole  matter  and  because  these  aberra- 
tions are  more  or  less  evanescent,  the  degree  to  which  they 
enter  into  the  psychology  of  adolescence  is  probably  not  gen- 
erally appreciated  by  the  mature  mind. 

It  is  without  doubt  due  to  the  sex  instincts,  manifesting  them- 
selves in  an  indirect  and  unconscious  way,  that  one  of  the  fre- 
quent symptoms  of  developing  adolescence  is  the  impulse, 
sometimes  very  strong,  to  seek  new  environment.  Although 
this  is  an  extremely  complex  impulse,  it  is  classed  by  psychol- 
ogists as  an  instinct.    How  much  of  the  activity  that  is  gener- 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  65 

ally  attributed  to  this  migratory  instinct  is  due  merely  to  love 
of  adventure  and  restless  desire  for  action  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine. Teachers  and  parents  are  aware  that  during  early  and 
middle  adolescence  attacks  of  "spring  fever"  are  more  liable  to 
occur  than  at  other  times,  and  that  this  characteristic  unrest 
shows  itself  in  the  form  of  truancy  and  other  irregularities,  which 
indicate  only  too  clearly  that  youth  is  not  naturally  tolerant  of 
the  restraints  and  routine  of  the  schoolroom  and  the  home. 
The  impulse  is  so  strong  and  the  yearning  so  great  and  some- 
times so  protracted  that  it  is  a  veritable  wanderlust  and  has 
without  doubt  an  instinctive  basis.  It  has  been  suggested  that, 
because  this  migratory  instinct  is  so  common  and  often  exer- 
cises such  a  controlling  influence,  the  high  school  may  well 
turn  it  to  account  by  planning  educational  trips  and  excursions 
of  various  kinds;  these  can  easily  be  made  to  contribute  much 
to  the  school  work  in  science,  history,  and  geography.  In 
the  German  schools  such  trips  have  been  organized  as  a  regular 
part  of  the  school  work;  and  this  has  been  done  to  some  ex- 
tent around  Boston  and  central  New  York.  This  may  well 
be  undertaken  where  the  school  is  located  near  places  of  literary, 
historic,  and  geological  interest.  At  any  rate,  this  migratory 
instinct,  which  is  best  accounted  for  as  a  ramification  of  the 
sex  instinct,  is  present  and  often  impulsive,  and  the  teachers 
and  parents  who  are  wise  and  sympathetic  will  make  the  most 
of  it. 

In  general  we  may  be  sure  that  the  more  ways  that  the  all- 
compelling  sex  instincts  can  be  long-circuited  and  interwoven 
with  other  Ufe  interests  and  made  to  irradiate  the  whole  life 
and  personaHty,  the  safer  and  better  it  will  be  for  the  individ- 
ual. There  are  clearly  great  possibilities  which  lie  in  this  di- 
rection, possibilities  for  enriching  and  beautifying  the  character, 
as  well  as  serious  dangers  which  result  from  a  focusing  of  the 
impulses  natural  to  this  time  of  life. 

At  the  same  time  that  these  deep-seated  sex  developments, 


66  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

with  all  their  vital  and  far-reaching  consequences,  are  going  on, 
there  is  taking  place  an  unfolding  of  the  senses  and  their  manner 
of  functioning,  which,  though  not  as  striking  and  mysterious, 
is  very  important  to  the  work  of  education.  At  the  time  that 
E.  G.  Lancaster  published  the  results  of  his  well-known  ques- 
tionnaire, it  came  to  be  believed  that  there  is  a  conspicuous  sharp- 
ening and  strengthening  of  the  senses  during  the  period  of  ado- 
lescence; but  laboratory  experiments  do  not  confirm  this 
theory.  It  is  true  that  the  adolescent  sees,  hears,  and  feels  in 
a  way  that  is  new  to  him;  this,  however,  is  not  necessarily  due 
to  any  change  in  the  structure  or  functions  of  the  sense  organs, 
but  is  due  largely  to  the  new  emotional  setting  which  the  exer- 
cise of  the  sense  organs  comes  to  have.  The  ''new  aspects  of 
beauty"  which  come  to  youth  with  so  much  potency  and  make 
him  feel  frequently  that  he  is  living  in  a  new  world  do  not  have 
their  origin  in  any  organic  changes  in  the  retina  or  crystalline 
lens.  The  change  is  subjective  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term. 
The  thing  that  has  really  happened  is  the  same  in  character  and 
origin  as  we  have  in  Wordsworth  and  the  other  nature  poets 
when  they  see  in  the  fields  and  woods  and  brooks  the  changing 
moods  which  they  describe  so  vividly  and  sympathetically; 
many  adolescents  are  for  a  time  young  poets.  When  the  girl 
at  seventeen  hears  the  chiming  of  bells  three  mUes  distant,  we 
must  not  infer  that  her  organs  of  hearing  have  become  more 
acute;  it  means  that  power  of  attention  and  interests  have 
changed;  the  modification  is  central  instead  of  peripheral; 
her  attitude  in  this  instance,  as  in  many  other  matters,  has 
changed. 

Whatever  may  be  the  true  explanation,  whether  central  or 
central  and  peripheral  in  its  origin,  the  senses  undergo  such  a 
marked  change  in  their  manner  of  functioning  that  it  is  pedagog- 
ically  important  to  understand  and  utilize  this  awakening.  All 
artistic  and  creative  success  in  the  last  analysis  depends  upon 
carefully  and  accurately  trained  senses:   and  the  training  to 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND   RECONSTRUCTION  6^ 

be  most  successful  must  occur  at  the  time  when  the  various 
sense  organs  are  most  plastic;  and  the  training  should  be  based 
on  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  real  nature  of  the  changes 
going  on.  It  is  said  that  if  a  young  duck  is  kept  away  from 
the  water  six  months  it  will  never  learn  to  swim;  the  water- 
seeking  and  using  instincts  will  die.  Those  arts  which  require 
the  highest  degree  of  efficiency  in  the  use  of  the  senses  must  be 
cultivated  during  the  nascent  period  of  sense  development, 
otherwise  it  is  a  case  of  keeping  the  duck  away  from  the  water. 
Furthermore,  psychology  has  long  taught  that  the  higher 
processes  of  mental  development  are  closely  and  causally  con- 
nected with  the  evolution  of  the  senses.  Hence  the  next  few 
paragraphs  are  devoted  to  a  description  and  discussion  of  the 
quantitative  and  qualitative  changes  in  the  functioning  of 
the  various  senses  during  adolescence. 

First,  with  regard  to  touch;  there  appears  at  pubescence  "a 
new  kind  of  dermal  consciousness."  There  is  a  tendency  to 
give  increased  attention  to  the  skin;  it  was  probably  due  to 
this  changed  interest  in  dermal  sensations  and  conditions  that 
the  ancient  Romans  and  Orientals  developed  at  adolescence 
such  a  passion  for  the  bath  and  unguents.  During  the  early 
years  of  adolescence  a  muddy  complexion  and  eruptions  of 
the  skin  are  rather  common,  especially  with  girls  that  suffer 
any  abnormality  in  their  development.  There  often  comes  with 
this  roughness  of  the  skin  a  strong  desire  to  remove  the  cause; 
hence,  is  formed  the  disagreeable  habit,  sometimes  almost  ir- 
resistible, of  picking  at  the  skin  and  pulling  out  hairs  regardless 
of  the  irritation  or  pain  that  may  result.  The  glands  which 
supply  the  skin  with  oil  and  moisture  become  more  active  at 
puberty,  and  the  skin  becomes  more  glossy,  thus  affecting  the 
personal  appearance  at  a  time  when  it  naturally  receives  much 
thought;  this  frequently  gives  rise  voluntarily  to  new  habits 
of  bathing  and  use  of  cosmetics.  Also  there  is  likely  to  develop 
at  this  period  marked  likes  and  dislikes  for  contact  with  others. 


68  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

which  occasionally  take  the  form  of  permanent  idiosyncrasies. 
The  feeling  of  smoothness  and  softness  in  connection  with  the 
skin  of  others  frequently  develops  into  an  exquisite  sensation 
and  there  comes  with  it  a  strong  desire  to  supply  stimulus  by 
hand-shaking,  patting,  stroking,  and  caressing.  Sometimes 
strong  and  sudden  likes  and  dislikes,  that  seem  to  be  deep- 
seated  especially  with  girls,  have  their  origin  in  a  sensitiveness 
to  the  quality  and  texture  of  the  skin;  hence  for  some  people 
at  this  time  promiscuous  hand-shaking,  as  at  a  reception,  is 
very  distasteful.  Again,  this  newly  awakened  dermal  con- 
sciousness brings  about  a  changed  feeling  with  regard  to  dress 
and  the  exposure  of  parts  of  the  body;  the  new  sentiment  may 
be  either  to  cover  or  to  uncover  in  a  way  hitherto  not  desired. 
Closely  allied  to  this  matter  under  discussion,  and  arising  from 
the  same  cause,  is  an  augmented  consciousness  of  anything 
that  in  any  manner  affects  the  contour  of  the  body.  As  to 
skin  hygienics.  Dr.  Hall  recommends  a  rugged  life  with  vigor- 
ous stimulating  of  the  skin  in  almost  any  way,  especially  fre- 
quent cold  baths  and  much  use  of  rough  towels,  as  tending  to 
prevent  the  focusing  of  consciousness  on  sex  organs  and  func- 
tions, and  contributing  to  the  general  health,  happiness,  and 
well-being  of  the  individual. 

The  sense  of  taste,  which  has  so  much  to  do  in  determining 
what  kind  and  form  of  nutrition  the  body  shall  have,  comes  to 
have  a  much  wider  range  during  adolescence,  and  the  appetite 
is  liable  to  become  more  capricious.  The  latest  studies  of 
metabolism  seem  to  indicate  that  each  cell  and  tissue  of  the 
body  has  its  own  specific  hunger  and  that  appetite,  when  not 
perverted,  is  a  general  summing  up  of  all  the  consequent  cell- 
cravings;  this  explains  the  new  likings  that  appear  at  this  time. 
More  food  is  needed  to  furnish  material  to  the  rapidly  develop- 
ing tissues;  and,  because  the  relative  rate  of  growth  of  each 
part  varies  in  such  a  peculiar  way,  as  we  have  already  noted 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  relative  demands  for  the  different 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND   RECONSTRUCTION  69 

food  elements  also  vary  in  a  peculiar  manner  and  with  each 
individual.  Milk,  which  is  often  taken  with  pleasure  and  in 
large  quantities,  becomes  distasteful,  and  more  solid  food  is 
desired.  The  increase  in  the  size  of  the  jaw-bone,  already  men- 
tioned, and  the  enlarging  of  the  muscles  of  mastication  better 
aid  in  preparing  the  new  foods.  It  is  even  said  that  the  prev- 
alent gum-chewing  habit  culminates  at  this  time  and  affords 
work  for  the  developing  muscles.  Extreme  likes  and  dislikes 
in  the  matter  of  food  are  likely  to  arise;  nearly  always  more 
animal  food  is  wanted,  also  foods  with  a  bitter  taste;  and  the 
tastes  for  both  sweets  and  acids  are  changed,  sometimes  in- 
creased and  sometimes  decreased.  New  articles  of  diet  become 
interesting  and  must  be  tried;  and  there  is  often  an  unsettled 
period  when  tastes  are  fluctuating  and  even  freakish.  All 
tends  toward  the  establishment  of  a  new  equilibrium  with  larger 
variety  as  its  basis.  There  is,  too,  at  this  time  a  tendency  to 
determine  choice  of  food  by  psychic  notions;  often  because  of 
social  or  supposedly  hygienic  reasons  new  tastes  are  cultivated 
by  sheer  force  of  will;  many  people  have  to  learn  to  like  green 
oUves,  ripe  tomatoes,  and  oysters;  and  these  tastes  are  usually 
cultivated  during  the  early  teens.  But  there  are  unfortunate 
tendencies  connected  with  the  changing  tastes,  as  well  as  with 
nearly  all  the  changes  incident  to  adolescence.  Stimulants, 
narcotics,  and  condiments  are  often  passionately  desired.  This 
tendency  is  probably  due  as  much  to  the  increased  nervous 
tension  and  fondness  for  novel  sensations  and  experiences  as 
it  is  to  the  changing  demands  of  the  developing  organs.  There 
is,  also,  frequently  a  tendency  to  irregularity  in  the  time  of 
eating  and  the  quantity  of  food  desired.  Notwithstanding  all 
these  troublesome  tendencies,  a  well-balanced  and  comprehen- 
sive dietary  is  especially  needed  at  adolescence;  for  every  or- 
gan and  tissue  must  be  able  to  get  from  the  blood  which  flows 
through  it  the  kind  and  quantity  of  nutriment  it  requires  for 
its  upbuilding,  and,  as  we  know,  the  needs  are  great  and  vary- 


7©  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

ing.  The  eating  habits  should  receive  attention.  Hygienic 
considerations  demand  that  aversions  which  interfere  with 
a  broad  and  balanced  dietary  should  when  possible  be 
overcome;  the  appetite  must  be  kept  true  to  the  needs  of  the 
body  if  the  demands  of  the  higher  metabolism  are  to  be  met;  and 
it  is  difficult  to  adopt  a  new  food  after  physiological  maturity. 

The  sense  of  smell,  which  is  usually  so  undeveloped  in  the 
adult,  is  closely  connected  with  and  often  greatly  influences 
taste.  It  is  most  exquisitely  developed  in  girls  at  the  beginning 
of  puberty;  and  boys  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  are  more  sen- 
sitive to  all  odors  except  musk.  This  is  the  time,  especially 
with  girls,  when  the  fragrance  of  flowers  gives  more  pleasure, 
and  is  more  finely  discriminated,  when  there  is  an  increased 
interest  in  perfumes,  girls  being  very  fond  of  perfumed  writ- 
ing paper,  handkerchiefs,  and  soap,  their  tastes  in  these  matters 
varying  greatly.  There  is  much  evidence  that  tends  to 
prove  that  the  associations  of  this  sense  are  strong  and  deep, 
although  often  subconscious;  a  bad  breath  or  other  disa- 
greeable personal  odor  may  blight  a  friendship.  Thus  even 
the  sense  of  smell  comes  to  have  a  social  outlook  at  this  period, 
and  like  the  other  senses  and  faculties,  exhibits  greater  alert- 
ness and  sensitiveness. 

In  early  adolescence,  when  the  voice  is  changing,  there  comes 
a  new  vocal  consciousness.  As  the  voice  increases  in  range,  it 
is  probable  that  the  scale  of  audibility  falls  slightly,  some  of 
the  higher  notes  losing  their  power  to  please  and  the  lower 
ones  gaining  appreciation;  this  experience  was  very  marked 
with  the  present  writer.  This  of  course  is  entirely  different 
from  the  ability  to  hear  high  notes,  which  reaches  its  limit 
in  the  early  years  of  adolescence.  Lancaster  found  that  in 
the  case  of  464  out  of  the  556  young  people  studied  there  was 
an  increase  in  the  love  of  music,  a  new  fondness  for  rhythm  and 
melody,  the  pleasure  derived  culminating  at  fifteen  and  drop- 
ping off  rapidly  after  sixteen.    The  interest  in  music  which 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  71 

suddenly  develops  at  this  time  occasionally  amounts  to  a  pas- 
sion; young  people  buy  musical  instruments,  voluntarily  be- 
come enthusiastic  about  music  lessons  (usually  very  irksome 
to  children),  and  are  filled  with  the  notion  that  a  great  musical 
career  is  before  them.  For  those  who  have  already  gained 
some  proficiency  in  music  there  awakens  a  new  interest  in 
"the  concourse  of  sweet  sounds"  and  they  think  of  this  new 
talent  as  a  means  of  giving  expression  to  feelings  and  emotions 
otherwise  unutterable.  In  a  large  majority  of  cases  this  en- 
thusiasm is  extremely  transient,  lasting  but  a  year  or  two. 
However,  those  who  have  real  musical  ability  make  wonderful 
progress  during  this  period.  Although  much  can  be  done  to- 
ward mastering  the  technique  of  musical  performance  during 
preadolescence,  adolescence  is  the  time  for  the  great  soul-awak- 
ening influences  of  the  world's  masterpieces;  for  the  synthetic 
powers  of  the  mind  are  now  able  to  unite  the  many  parts  of 
these  compositions  into  one  harmonious  whole,  and  there  comes 
now  a  new  responsiveness  to  accent,  timbre,  and  cadences  (the 
soul-qualities),  and  to  the  language  of  music  in  its  larger  as- 
pects. There  seems  to  be  deep  significance,  suggestive  of 
fruitful  possibilities,  in  the  concurrent  development  of  the  new 
vocal  consciousness  and  this  increased  responsiveness  to  the 
influence  of  music;  there  is  clearly  a  close  connection  between 
the  ear  and  the  emotional  life,  which  during  adolescence  is 
so  much  of  life.  It  forcibly  presents  a  double  possibility,  (i) 
the  possibility  of  long-circuiting  some  of  the  troublesome  vital 
energy  that  is  now  developing  and  with  it  irradiating  the  whole 
nature  of  the  individual,  thus  safe-guarding  and  enriching  him 
in  his  time  of  turmoil,  and  (2)  the  possibility  of  cultivating  in- 
dividual talents  and  powers  and  bringing  to  light  elements  of 
personality  which  can  be  reached  only  at  this  time.  Without 
doubt  music,  like  other  forms  of  art,  tends  to  create  the  same 
emotional  states  which  produced  it;  thus  the  spells  which  the 
best  music  casts  and  the  raptures  which  it  stirs  would  seem 


72  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

naturally  to  be  a  harmonizing  and  tranquilizing  influence^ 
making  for  pleasure,  safety,  and  richer  character. 

It  is  well  to  note  in  this  connection  that  the  adolescent  often 
becomes  especially  sensitive  to  the  sounds  in  nature  and  re- 
sponds to  them  in  ways  that  are  entirely  new.  At  this  time, 
as  one  of  our  American  poets  during  his  adolescence  sympathet- 
ically expressed  it, 

"To  him  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language;  for  his  gayer  hours 
She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 
And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 
Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 
And  healing  sympathy,  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware." 

The  emotional  response  to  the  sounds  of  nature  here  described 
by  Bryant,  when  she  speaks  the  language  of  the  heart,  is  an- 
other symptom  of  the  poetical  awakening  that  may  come  with 
dawning  adolescence. 

The  way  in  which  the  power  of  vision  unfolds  during  ado- 
lescence is  pedagogically  suggestive.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  the 
judgment  of  form  is  most  correct,  boys  being  more  accurate 
than  girls;  whereas  from  six  to  ten,  girls  are  more  accurate  in 
their  judgment  of  form  than  boys.  According  to  studies  made 
by  Griffing,  the  maximum  number  of  letters  seen  at  one  time 
increases  rapidly  from  puberty  to  maturity.  All  visual  es- 
timates improve  and  show  closer  relation  between  retinal  sen- 
sations and  psychic  processes.  There  appears  at  this  time  much 
greater  power  to  discriminate  the  finer  differences  in  faces, 
and  other  personal  features  such  as  style  of  walking  and  fit  of 
clothing;  this  is  without  doubt  due  largely  to  modification  of 
interests.  The  social  and  esthetic  surroundings  take  on  new 
interest  and  meaning;  and  there  comes  a  power  to  discern 
beauty  in  symmetry  and  proportion,  and  things  are  perceived 
in  larger  units.    The  adolescenv  often  revels  in  color,  which 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  73 

makes  a  stronger  appeal  than  mere  form  and  proportion;  the 
hues  of  things  in  outdoor  nature,  like  their  sounds,  give  increased 
pleasure  and  take  on  new  meanings,  sometimes  becoming  sug- 
gestive and  symbolical.  What  was  once  mere  fields,  hills,  and 
trees  now  becomes  scenery  to  be  admired,  enjoyed,  and  de- 
scribed. Chromatic  sensibility  reaches  its  maximum  of  acute- 
ness  in  girls  at  sixteen.  This  sense  is  frequently  satisfied  only 
by  bright  colors  and  striking  contrasts,  the  taste  for  delicate 
tints  and  subdued  tones  appearing  later.  During  early  and 
middle  adolescence  color  preferences  often  change  and  are 
sometimes  reversed;  to  the  present  writer  certain  shades  of 
green  give  the  most  pleasure,  whereas  during  preadolescence 
green  was  the  color  most  disliked.  This  development  of  the 
visual  sense  and  this  lively  interest  in  all  that  appeals  to  the 
eye  clearly  suggests  that  this  is  the  time  for  effective  artistic 
training;  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  work  the  emphasis  should 
be  given  to  color  and  color  effects;  the  sense  of  beauty  that 
lies  in  form,  proportion,  and  symmetry  may  later  have  its  "in- 
ning." At  any  rate,  it  is  important  that  the  instinctive  interest 
in  color  and  form  which  now  appears  should  be  made  to  bear 
normal  fruit  by  timely  and  suitable  training  in  some  kind 
of  art. 

These  are  some  of  the  developments  in  sense  perception  that 
occur  at  the  beginning  of  or  during  adolescence,  each  sense  and 
its  corresponding  organ  maturing  in  its  own  characteristic 
manner.  But  there  are  many  general  characteristics  in  the 
evolution  of  sense  perception  at  this  time.  Before  adolescence, 
sense  stimuli  tend  to  reflex  action,  whereas  adolescent  develop- 
ment is  in  the  direction  of  delayed  and  better  organized  re- 
sponses to  stimuli.  There  is  a  noticeable  increase  in  the  associ- 
ative functions  of  the  mind;  there  comes  to  be  more  delibera- 
tion and  reflection;  the  material  brought  into  the  brain  through 
the  various  senses  is  worked  over,  as  it  were,  and  elaborated 
before  the  finished  product  is  returned  through  the  efferent 


74  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

system;  as  science  expresses  it,  there  is  greatly  "increased 
cerebral  irradiation,"  and  this  naturally  reacts  upon  the  sense 
organs  and  causes  them  to  function  more  perfectly.  What 
happens  may  be  compared  to  a  great  manufacturing  plant  ex- 
changing a  mechanically-minded,  routine-regulating  superin- 
tendent for  a  man  full  of  initiative  and  originality  and  able  to 
elaborate  and  profit  by  his  experiences;  the  workers  at  once 
become  more  efficient  and  show  new  interest  in  their  perform- 
ances. Besides  this  increased  elaboration  of  the  sensations, 
there  is  an  increased  tendency  to  project  the  sensations,  and 
along  with  this  objectification  of  the  sensations  comes  new 
possibilities  for  enjoyment;  the  discomfitures,  also,  as  well  as 
the  pleasures,  resulting  from  sense  experiences  are  more  keenly 
felt.  Moreover,  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  there  is  built 
into  the  sensorium  during  adolescence  the  power  to  discriminate 
many  new  sensations.  Kiilpe  claims  that  about  14000  is  the 
maximum  number  of  different  sensations  that  can  be  distin- 
guished; and  there  probably  comes  at  this  period  of  reconstruc- 
tion many  changes  in  the  relative  psychic  importance  of  the 
various  sensations. 

All  this  awakening  and  elaborating  of  the  sense  organs  and 
sense  experiences  can  be  understood  and  interpreted  as  one  of 
the  secondary  sex  characteristics;  for,  as  sex  life  develops, 
the  growing  organs  send  to  the  brain  a  new  and  confused  mass 
of  sensations,  at  first,  perhaps,  not  even  localized,  which  give 
to  the  individual  the  characteristic  feeling  of  intensified  exist- 
ence. 

The  following  statements  by  Dr.  Hall  emphasize  the  more 
important  general  features  of  sense  development  during  this 
period  and  indicate  the  practical  aspects  of  the  subject  for  those 
who  deal  with  adolescents.  "Adolescent  years  mark  the  golden 
age  of  sense,  which  is  so  prone  to  become  sensual  if  uncontrolled. 
Then  the  soul  exposes  most  surface,  as  it  were,  to  the  external 
world.    The  eye  gate  and  ear  gate  especially  are  open  widest, 


MENTAL   GROWTH  AND   RECONSTRUCTION  75 

...  BO  that  the  possibility  of  knowing  our  world  and  acquir- 
ing experience  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  lapsing  to  a  life  of  in- 
dulgence [on  the  other],  are  now  most  developed."  "Every 
centripetal  nerve  glows  and  tingles  with  new  life,  and  every 
in-going  fiber  is  freighted  and  even  gorged  with  the  traffic  of 
impressions.  Never  is  the  body  so  imperiously  dominant  and 
so  insistently  in  evidence,  and  never  is  the  external  world  so 
ineluctable  and  impressively  real,  as  in  this  impressionistic 
age.  Never  is  objective  and  subjective  experience  so  vivid 
and  manifold.    Youth  is  in  its  world,  in  the  closest  rapport 

with  it  possible  to  man All  this  is  his  right  and  his 

necessity,  only  it  must  neither  lead  to  perversion  or  become  so 
overwhelmingly  absorbing  as  to  cause  arrest  or  degeneration." 
The  pedagogical  import  of  all  this  is  clear  and  impressive:  the 
adolescent  has  such  urgent  claims  upon  the  external  world  and 
so  rapidly  are  these  claims  filed,  that  one  must  reaUze  that 
"now  is  the  accepted  time." 

The  psychology  of  adolescence  would  be  strangely  incom- 
plete without  an  account  of  the  development  of  the  sentiment 
of  love,  for  its  development  is  the  most  vitally  significant  and 
characteristic  phase  of  the  whole  period.  R.  S.  Bourne  says: 
"Youth  expresses  itself  by  falling  in  love.  .  .  .  The  youth  is 
swept  away  by  a  flood  of  love.  He  has  learned  to  value,  and 
how  superlative  and  magnificent  are  his  values! "  Bourne  here 
points  out  the  tendency  of  a  force  that  may  remain  latent,  and 
he  suggests  the  impetuosity  of  that  force  when  it  becomes  ac- 
tive. Although  this  sentiment  sometimes  appears  suddenly, 
comes  from  the  depths  of  a  young  life,  and  for  a  time  sweeps 
everything  before  it,  in  organization  and  manner  of  develop- 
ment it  resembles  the  other  sentiments  based  on  instinct,  the 
only  difference  being  the  motor-force  behind  it.  For  condi- 
tions of  growth  this  sentiment,  as  Slaughter  has  pointed  out, 
depends  upon  "a  succession  of  emotional  experiences  in  rela- 
tion to  an  object;"  in  this  it  is  like  other  sentiments  based  on 


76  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

instinct.  The  relation  between  the  sexes,  with  all  the  complex 
and  subtile  irradiations,  certainly  involves  the  whole  psycho- 
logical field;  but  a  description  of  this  is  not  attempted  here; 
our  interest  is  in  the  irradiations  and  the  indirect  but  powerful 
influences  which  have  love  for  their  source.  It  may  be  asserted 
at  the  beginning  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  typical  develop- 
ment of  the  sentiment  of  love.  The  brief  account  of  the  stages 
or  kinds  of  love  which  follow  is  based  on  the  studies  of  Sanford 
Bell  and  others  as  reported  by  Dr.  Hall  in  his  Adolescence; 
these  studies  seem  to  have  influenced  recent  writings  on  the 
subject. 

The  first  form  of  love  between  the  sexes,  if  such  it  can  be 
called,  is  the  infantile  love  which  appears  before  the  age  of 
eight.  It  is  in  the  nature  of  a  fondness  for  each  other's  com- 
pany, is  transparent,  entirely  lacking  in  self-consciousness,  free 
from  shyness,  seems  to  be  sexless,  and  the  purest  sort  of  tem- 
porary afl&nity;  thus  it  may  be  called  Platonic.  Little  gifts, 
especially  things  to  eat,  are  exchanged;  and  a  mild  form  of 
jealousy  may  appear  in  connection  with  it.  Whatever  this 
manifestation  may  be  or  whatever  its  origin,  it  is  probably  "  ex- 
otic, like  infant  piety;"  it  is  possible  there  is  an  element  of 
imitation  in  it;  and  it  is  probably  not  instinctive  in  any  strong 
sense.  Both  science  and  common-sense  suggest  that  these 
little  love-like  performances  should  be  ignored  by  adults  or 
at  least  not  encouraged;  they  may  be  amusing,  but  so  far  as 
is  now  known,  they  have  little  significance  and  are  transitory 
when  elders  are  wise  enough  to  leave  them  alone. 

The  next  stage  is  juvenile  liking,  which  makes  its  appearance 
during  the  periods  of  preadolescence  and  early  adolescence, 
some  time  between  eight  and  fourteen.  Biologically  this  stage 
is  very  interesting;  it  is  the  human  coimterpart  of  the  mating 
season  of  animals.  The  developments  at  this  time  are  self- 
conscious  and  frequently  secretive.  Now  appears  for  the  first 
time  a  keen  interest  in  some  one  of  the  opposite  sex;  but  we 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  77 

must  not  expect  this  interest  to  be  openly  avowed;  these  sen- 
timents of  affection  are  expressed  by  indirect  and  covert  ways. 
It  is  the  age  of  motto  candy,  keepsakes,  valentines,  picture 
cards,  and  the  like.  It  is  the  age,  too,  of  love  games,  for  these 
make  an  opportunity  for  giving  expression  to  the  feelings  of 
the  participants  under  cover  of  the  game.  Among  the  eighty- 
three  games  played  by  the  Washington  children,  Babcock  found 
thirty  love  games,  in  which  the  charm  seemed  to  be  choosing  a 
partner  and  expressing  in  some  way  under  the  rules  of  the  game 
the  sentiment  which  the  players  naturally  conceal.  It  is  the 
stage  of  love  that  furnished  the  motive  for  Whittier's  poem 
*'In  School-Days."  At  this  time  the  boy  suddenly  begins  to 
give  heed  to  his  personal  appearance;  his  mother's  habitual 
reminders  with  regard  to  combing  his  hair,  brushing  his  teeth, 
and  cleaning  his  shoes  are  no  longer  needed.  In  the  days  of 
chivalry  the  knight  tilted  imder  the  rules  of  the  tournament 
in  the  presence  of  his  lady-love;  but  our  hero  contents  him- 
self with  showing  off  when  trying  to  attract  the  favorable  atten- 
tion of  some  girl  of  his  age.  He  talks  loud,  indulges  in  horse- 
play, scuffles,  turns  somersaults,  hangs  by  his  legs  from  trees, 
seizes  and  handles  roughly  without  provocation  some  boy  that 
happens  to  be  at  hand,  or  performs  some  other  antics  that  he 
thinks  will  conmiand  attention  and  be  admired.  In  the  mean- 
time the  girl  on  her  part  assumes  an  attitude  of  indifference; 
if  she  vouchsafes  any  attention,  she  gives  it  furtively  and  from 
a  distance,  although  sometimes,  contrary  to  what  is  generally 
expected,  she  is  less  guarded  than  he  is.  However,  all  the  time 
she  sees  and  understands  the  whole  situation.  This  is  the 
stage  of  love  that  breaks  out  in  the  springtime,  for  which  there 
is  probably  a  biological  reason.  The  adult's  attitude  toward  it 
is  frequently  one  of  annoyance;  but  the  tactful  teacher  or  par- 
ent can  easily  make  use  of  this  juvenile  sentiment  to  secure 
better  work  and  conduct. 
There  is  another  form  of  love  that  sometimes  appears  at  this 


78  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

age  or  even  later;  it  is  the  juvenile  affection  for  an  older  per- 
son of  the  opposite  sex.  On  the  part  of  the  younger  person 
there  is  great  admiration  and  fervent  devotion;  while  on  the 
part  of  the  older  person  there  is  usually  sympathetic  and  kindly 
treatment.  From  the  standpoint  of  biology  this  form  is  not 
easily  understood,  but  psychologically  it  is  very  interesting. 
It  is  usually  characterized  by  less  fickleness  while  it  lasts  than 
the  liking  of  boys  and  girls  of  similar  age,  due  perhaps  to  the 
mature  stability  and  constancy  of  the  older  person,  who  for 
the  time  being  serves  as  an  ideal  for  the  younger.  This  phase 
of  love  should  always  be  thought  of  and  treated  as  transitory. 
This  form  appears  most  frequently  in  the  sentimental  attach- 
ment which  a  young  boy  develops  for  his  teacher  if  she  is  an 
attractive  yoimg  lady;  he  will  gladly  forego  play  and  the  society 
of  his  mates  and  remain  after  school  to  render  a  possible  ser- 
vice; he  frequently  overwhelms  the  object  of  his  affection  with 
gifts  of  flowers  and  fruit;  and  he  is  in  every  way  thoroughly 
devoted.  V  Although  difficult  to  understand  and  in  a  way  im- 
natural,  the  situation  can  easily  be  made  an  opportunity  for 
much  helpful  influence;  for  the  older  person,  when  strong  and 
intelligent,  can  aid  in  fixing  high  ideals,  especially  by  living 
a  life  worthy  of  the  conscious  or  unconscious  imitation  of  the 
youthful  admirer.  It  is  possible  that  the  situation  may  de- 
velop into  a  lack  of  independence  and  a  condition  of  parasitism 
on  the  part  of  the  younger  person,  and  this  at  a  time  when 
there  should  come  considerable  independence  of  thought  and 
action;  this  is  of  course  unfortimate,  for  it  interferes  seriously 
with  personal  development. 

The  next  stage  in  the  development  of  adolescence  so  far  as 
the  sentiment  of  love  is  concerned  is  not  so  clearly  defined; 
and  there  is  less  agreement  as  to  the  exact  age  to  which  it 
should  be  assigned,  some  writers  claim  that  it  belongs  to  early 
adolescence.  The  period  is  marked  by  a  strange  tendency  of 
the  sexes  to  withdraw  temporarily  from  each  other.    The  boy 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  79 

sometimes  becomes  ashamed  to  associate  with  girls,  as  this 
would  seem  to  interfere  with  asserting  his  manhood,  and  many 
strange  and  new  interests  are  now  absorbing  his  attention.  He 
has  new  problems  to  solve  and  there  are  new  views  to  be  clarified. 
Hall  calls  attention  to  the  fact,  that  "  nearly  every  known  prim- 
itive race  now  isolates  the  sexes  for  a  time  from  each  other,  and 
perhaps  this  ancient  practice  now  appears  as  an  instinct  which 
reenforces  the  necessity  for  a  period  of  restraint."  At  any 
rate^  it  is  a  time  when  boys  find  masculine  company  more  con- 
genial; at  this  time  boys  argue  the  disadvantages  of  coeduca- 
tion. This  tendency  to  withdrawal  does  not  appear  quite  so 
strong  or  well  marked  in  girls,  yet  it  is  at  this  age  that  girls 
often  choose  the  life  of  the  convent.  Pedagogically  it  is  a  per- 
iod well  suited  to  cultivate  and  develop  in  boys  all  the  peculiarly 
manly  traits  and  virtues  and  in  girls  the  finer  and  gentler 
womanly  qualities,  the  traits  and  qualities  which  give  to  the 
later  adolescent  of  either  sex  so  much  charm. 

The  final  stage  in  the  development  of  this  sentiment  under 
discussion  comes  toward  the  close  of  adolescence.  Now  "the 
age  of  love,  in  the  full  and  proper  sense  of  the  word,  slowly 
supervenes  when  body  and  soul  are  mature."  The  sentiment 
now  takes  on  a  fuller  and  richer  meaning;  biologically  and  psy- 
chologically adulthood  is  the  true  mating  time  for  human  beings; 
but  it  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  a  book  dealing  with 
high-school  adolescence  and  problems  incident  to  secondary 
education  to  describe  or  discuss  this  last  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  love. 

We  now  pass  in  our  study  from  these  interesting  realms  of 
instincts,  sensations,  and  sentiments  to  the  realm  of  thought. 
Mental  maturing  in  the  individual  always  follows  and  requires 
more  time  than  physical  maturing.  It  has  been  shown  in  a 
preceding  chapter  how  great  is  the  variation  in  maturing  on 
the  physical  side;  there  are  marked  variations  as  to  age,  time 
required,  and  manner  of  unfolding;  therefore  it  cannot  be  other- 


8o  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

wise  on  the  mental  side.  In  general  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  variations  appear  repeatedly  as  one  of  the  laws  of  adoles- 
cent growth  and  development. 

There  comes  a  time  in  the  life  of  many  early  adolescents, 
generally  pretty  closely  associated  with  the  pubertal  period, 
when  it  would  seem  that  the  rapidly  occurring  physiological 
changes  interfere  for  a  season  with  the  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  the  brain  which  is  about  due;  so  it  happens  occasion- 
ally that  there  is  a  brief  period,  lasting  a  year  or  more,  of  com- 
parative stagnation  on  the  mental  side.  The  new  physical 
impulses,  which  are  not  yet  understood,  seem  to  keep  the  mind 
in  a  state  of  uncertainty.  Some  observers  believe  that  this 
happens  more  frequently  in  the  case  of  girls;  some  bright  girl 
will  show  temporarily  a  strange  and  annoying  denseness  and 
stolidity.  This  period  of  unresponsiveness  is  likely  to  come 
between  twelve  and  fifteen.  The  unquestioning  responsive- 
ness and  frankness  of  childhood  and  the  simple  and  efl&ciently 
organized  mental  life  of  preadolescence  have  passed,  and  the 
stimulating  and  sustaining  forces  of  youth  have  not  become 
ejBFective.  Bourne  speaks  of  this  time  as  *'a  trying  period  when 
the  child  has  become  well  cognizant  of  the  practical  world, 
but  has  yet  no  hint  of  the  gorgeous  colors  of  youth.  At  thir- 
teen, for  instance,  one  has  the  world  pretty  well  charted,  but 
not  yet  has  the  slow  chemistry  of  time  transmuted  this  experi- 
ence into  meanings  and  values.  .  .  At  no  time  in  life  is  one 
so  unspiritual,  so  mere  animal,  so  much  of  the  earth  earthy. 
How  different  is  it  to  be  a  few  years  later! "  As  another  writer 
has  expressed  it,  "they  lack  the  docility  of  childhood  and  the 
fine  idealism  that  comes  to  most  young  people  soon  after  pu- 
berty." There  seems  to  be  no  period  in  the  whole  mental  life 
of  the  individual  less  understood,  and  there  is  certainly  no  per- 
iod more  in  need  of  sympathetic  interpretation  and  treatment. 
It  is  a  phase  of  adolescent  development  difficult  to  understand, 
because  it  is  a  time  more  than  any  other  when  the  youth  in- 


MENTAL   GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  8l 

stinctively  withdraws  into  himself,  and  often  masks  behind  an 
air  of  indifference.  Because  he  has  not  found  his  mental  bear- 
ings, he  feels  that  he  is  likely  to  do  or  say  the  wrong  thing; 
so  he  does  or  says  nothing,  or,  what  is  more  disconcerting  and 
irritating,  he  says  or  does  some  inane  thing  that  makes  him 
appear  foolish  or  obdurate.  These  are  the  years  when  pupils, 
especially  boys,  are  in  danger  of  dropping  out  of  school;  or, 
if  they  remain  in,  they  may  lose  a  grade.  It  is  a  time  for  pa- 
tience, firmness,  and  sympathy  on  the  part  of  parents  and 
teachers.  Fortunately  many  adolescents  seem  somehow  to 
escape  this  period  when  physiological  maturing  appears  to 
side-track  for  a  time  the  expected  mental  development;  and 
these  fortunate  ones  enter  more  immediately  into  that  wonder- 
ful intellectual  and  social  awakening,  when  the  mental  vigor, 
glow,  and  enthusiasm  of  life  seem  ready  and  able  to  sweep  all 
before  them. 

It  is  this  marvelous  intellectual  awakening  and  reconstruc- 
tion that  we  are  next  to  consider.  Lowell  had  in  mind  this 
inspiring  phase  of  imfolding  adolescence  when  he  wrote: 

"  And  every  hour  new  signs  of  promise  tell 

That  the  great  soul  shall  once  again  be  free, 
For  high  and  yet  more  high  the  murmurings  swell 
Of  inward  strife  for  truth  and  Uberty." 

The  signs  of  awakening  and  maturing  mental  life  are  numerous. 
New  fields  of  thought  are  opening,  and  whole  realms  that 
before  had  no  interest  are  becoming  for  the  developing  youth 
veritable  fairylands  into  which  he  enters  with  wonder  and  en- 
thusiasm. ^''The  maximum  memory  span  is  reached  at  sixteen 
or  seventeen.  Perhaps  most  characteristic  of  the  mental  life 
of  the  period  is  the  rapid  growth  of  the  power  to  reason,  so 
noticeable  is  this  growth  that  reason  is  often  thought  of  as  an  ado- 
lescent faculty.  As  Dewey  has  pointed  out,  thinking  becomes  of 
"a  more  comprehensive  and  abstract  type  than  has  previously 
obtained;"   and  the  cruder  logical  processes  begin  to  attract 


y: 


82  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

and  give  satisfaction.  This  is  the  time  when  youth  first  thinks 
what  seem  to  him  "great  thoughts;"  and  it  is  perfectly  natural 
that  he  should  think  them  to  be  great  thoughts;  for  they  are 
so  new,  so  strange,  and  so  significant  as  compared  with  any 
previous  thought  experiences,  and  the  enthusiastic  young  phil- 
osopher has  no  way  of  knowing  that  his  thoughts  are  old,  per- 
haps, as  himian  reason.  Then,  too,  his  power  of  thought  as 
a  rule  greatly  outruns  his  powers  of  expression,  and  he  often 
longs  ardently  to  express  himself;  this  very  disparity  of  powers, 
which  is  itself  a  temporary  shortcoming,  increases  the  im- 
pression that  his  must  be  great  thoughts;  he  might  fittingly 
adopt  the  words  of  Tennyson,  — 

"I  would  that  my  tongue  could  utter 
The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me." 

He  has  come  to  love  intense  states  of  mind.  It  is  the  "spirit- 
ual drunkenness"  of  which  Plato  tells  us. 

This  widening  of  the  range  and  increase  in  the  complexity 
of  the  thought  processes  doubtless  have  as  their  physical  basis 
the  extending  of  many  neurons  into  the  new  area  of  the  cen- 
tral nervous  system.  This  development  of  new  or  latent  brain 
cells  with  their  attached  fibers  so  closely  parallels  the  increase 
of  ability  to  deal  with  more  elaborate  and  difl5cult  concepts  that 
there  can  be  little  doubt  of  the  causal  relation. 

This  rapid  growth  in  the  power  to  think  and  the  consciousness 
of  it  naturally  lead  to  much  youthful  confidence  relative  to 
the  conclusions  reached,  hence  the  characteristic  tendency 
toward  intellectual  independence,  a  tendency  which  often  proves 
somewhat  irritating  and  troublesome  to  deal  with  on  a  practi- 
cal basis.  It  is  the  time  when  youth  wills  to  do  his  own  think- 
ing, and  the  one  who  tries  to  do  it  for  him  makes  a  pedagogical 
blunder;  the  only  psychological  method  of  procedure  is  to 
try  to  guide  his  thinking.  The  safe  motto  is,  "Come,  let  us 
reason  together." 

Because  of  this  new  instrument  of  thought  and  the  satis- 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND   RECONSTRUCTION  83 

faction  he  finds  in  its  use,  the  adolescent,  more  particularly 
the  boy,  assumes  a  questioning  and  doubting  attitude  toward 
nearly  all  things.  This  critical  tendency  is  so  marked  that 
this  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  skeptical  period;  and  it  is  quite 
certain  that  nearly  all  of  the  world's  greatest  minds  have  been 
obliged  to  pass  through  this  doubting  and  questioning  experi- 
ence when  they  first  faced  the  problems  relative  to  the  inner 
meanings  of  things.  And  why  should  it  not  be  so?  The  child 
is  naturally  imaginative  and  credulous  and  ready  to  act  on 
suggestion;  the  preadolescent  is  usually  satisfied  if  his  ideas 
and  methods  fulfil  the  pragmatic  test  of  working  successfully; 
so  it  is  left  to  the  adolescent  with  his  new-found  powers  to  dis- 
cover the  \iltimate  truth  and  the  reasons  for  all  things.  The 
exercise  of  the  higher  mental  processes,  which  have  now  come 
to  be  so  interesting  and  the  results  of  which  seem  so  vital  to 
youth,  is  the  natural  and  only  means  of  mental  growth;  hence 
this  tendency  and  these  powers  must  be  given  scope  and  an 
abundance  of  worthy  material  on  which  the  unfolding  powers 
may  be  exercised. 
J^  Another  characteristic  of  adolescence  is  that  it  is  a  time  of 
dreams  and  reveries;  it  sometimes  happens  that,  notwithstand- 
ing the  strong  social  proclivities  natural  to  the  period,  youth 
seeks  solitude,  where  he  may  indulge  in  his  vague  graspings 
for  new  and  great  ideas.  Things  come  to  have  for  him  a  sense 
of  mystery.  Sometimes  he  seems  to  exhibit  the  traits  of  the 
poet,  sometimes  those  of  the  genius.  Longfellow,  recalling 
his  adolescent  years  spent  in  "the  city  by  the  sea,"  gives  us  a 
simple  statement  concerning  his  youthful  moods  and  aspira- 
tions. 

"I  remember  the  gleams  and  the  glooms  that  dart 

Across  the  school-boy's  brain; 
The  songs  and  silence  in  the  heart, 
That  in  part  are  prophecies,  and  in  part 

Are  longings  wild  and  vain." 


84  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

While  the  poet  was  living  through  these  experiences  of  "the 
heart,"  they  seemed  prophecies,  later  only  vain  longings. 
Youth,  as  he  suggests,  has  its  moods  of  elation  and  depression 
(due  often  to  physiological  causes),"  the  gleams  and  the  glooms." 
Adolescence  is  the  time  when  the  individual  first  begins  to  pro- 
ject these  temporary  moods  and  feelings  upon  nature,  assum- 
ing toward  it  for  the  first  time  an  emotional  attitude;  hence 
nature  makes  a  new  and  strong  appeal.  Perhaps,  of  all  the 
phases  of  adolescence,  this  is  the  most  marvelous  and  unique. 
The  sensations  and  sentiments  which  sometimes  flood  the  stream 
of  life  are  so  indistinct  and  ill-defined  that  they  are  little  more 
than  vague  and  inexpressible  yearnings,  mysterious  troubling 
of  the  waters,  diffused  raptures  and  seasons  of  nameless  joy, 
alternating  with  depressing  periods  of  misgivings  and  unrest. 
These  vague,  evanescent,  mysterious  moods  and  promptings, 
which  seem  to  place  the  individual  in  a  class  with  poets  and 
geniuses,  are  explainable,  like  the  other  mental  traits  of  the 
period,  by  physiological  causes;  it  is  thought  that  they  are 
but  the  irradiations  of  the  rapidly  developing  sex  life,  second- 
ary sex  characteristics,  which  disappear  when  certain  physiolog- 
ical processes  cease.  They  are  believed  to  be  the  result  of  the 
inward  trafl&c  along  the  sensory  tract  toward  the  sensory  parts 
of  the  brain  of  confused  masses  of  sensations  and  impressions, 
having  their  origin  in  the  maturing  sex  organs  and  functions. 
Thus,  in  a  certain  sense,  poetry,  art,  romance,  and  even  re- 
ligion, all  that  is  highest  and  most  characteristically  human, 
proceed  from  a  physical  basis.  The  implications  at  this  point 
are  clear;  from  this  physical  maturing  all  greatness  takes 
its  rise,  and  the  most  must  be  made  of  it. 
>^It  follows  from  the  above  that  emotion  and  enthusiasm  of 
ten  make  up  the  major  part  of  the  mental  life  of  the  adolescent  j 
deep,  passionate  interest  in  all  things  that  touch  the  individ- 
ual is  now  natural  and  an  encouraging  sign,  as  belonging  to  a 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  85 

deep  and  rich  nature;  the  chronically  flippant  and  blas6  atti- 
tude toward  life,  which  frequently  appears,  argues  a  shallow 
and  empty  character  in  every  way  disappointing  and  discour- 
aging. The  proverbial  enthusiasm  and  optimism  of  youth  are 
both  causal  and  consequential,  and  fortunate  are  the  adults 
that  can  live  in  sympathetic  accord  with  so  much  that  is  vital 
and  inspiring;  Socrates,  the  most  human  of  the  old  philoso- 
phers, always  sought  out  the  companionship  of  the  Athenian 
youth. 

It  is  easily  understood  that,  with  all  this  rapid  and  irregular 
increase  of  the  mental  powers  and  the  blending  of  the  changing 
mental  states  with  the  new  emotional  elements,  there  must 
naturally  be  considerable  lack  of  intellectual  perspective;  the 
adolescent  must  not  be  expected  to  see  everything  in  its  due 
proportion  or  to  evaluate  facts  and  experiences  according  to 
adult  standards.  His  idealism  is  frequently  crude  and  vague, 
and  his  unwonted  vigor  will  many  times  carry  him  beyond 
conventional  bounds;  but  these  are  not  symptoms  that  should 
disturb  us.  This  emotional  idealism  and  this  enthusiasm  are 
not  to  be  killed  in  the  bud  or  in  any  way  allowed  to  miscarry, 
for  they  are  the  unfoldings  of  a  larger  life. 

This  concludes  our  account  of  the  mental  growth  and  recon- 
struction due  at  this  time.  It  remains  to  draw  a  few  practical 
conclusions. 

Because  youth  feels  so  keenly  the  force  of  the  on-rushing 
vital  currents  of  his  new  life,  he  is  liable  to  be  oblivious  of  the 
limits  and  checks  which  nature  and  experience  provide,  hence 
his  tendency  to  overdo  in  many  directions.  This  adds  to  the 
nervous  strain  incident  to  the  period,  thus  endangering  health 
and  possibly  resulting  in  a  stunting  mental  precocity.  What 
can  be  done?  This  is  the  time  when  all  the  powers  must  have 
scope.  Health  and  safety  both  call  for  guiding  and  suggestive, 
rather  tEan  imperative,  methods  of  procedure;  and  the  mental 


86  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

regimen  must  be  carefully  planned  to  meet  adolescent  needs 
and  interests  if  there  is  to  be  assimilation  and  the  consequent 
growth  and  development.  So  far  in  our  account,  growth  of 
mind  has  been  described  largely  in  terms  of  itself;  but  there  is 
also  growth  in  terms  of  the  educational  materials  that  are  at 
hand.  The  developing  physical  and  mental  powers  both  point 
to  this  as  the  period  for  acquiring  both  mechanical  and  artistic 
skill;  but  over-precision  and  great  stringency  must  be  guarded 
against.  The  adolescent  naturally  focuses  on  matter  rather 
than  form;  and  his  sensibility  is  easily  dulled  and  his  enthusi- 
asm dampened  by  hypercritical  handling.  Anything  that 
savors  of  dullness  or  lack  of  life  is  unpardonable  in  those  who 
are  directing  the  interests  and  efforts  of  youth;  boredom^-at 
this  time  gives  rise  to  all  sorts  of  troubles,  taking  the  form  of 
lack  of  interest  or  rebellion.  As~has  already  been  shown, 
interest  in  all  phases  of  art  is  naturally  augmented,  and  for 
those  with  real  gifts  in  this  direction  remarkable  growth  both 
in  appreciation  and  execution  is  possible.  The  power  to  ap- 
preciate and  to  emotionalize  is  far  ahead  of  the  ability  to  give 
expression,  yet  the  adolescent  is  strongly  urged  to  self-expres- 
sion; the  result  is  that  the  rapidly  rising  tide  of  ideas  which 
are  carried  forward  on  a  flood  of  emotions  fairly  swamps  him, 
the  inner  commotion  and  turmoil  obstructing  the  outward 
flow;  hence  he  must  be  protected  against  overstimulation. 
To  be  more  specific,  although  he  has  so  much  more  to  express, 
the  adolescent's  growth  of  vocabulary  and  his  precision  in  artic- 
ulation, particularly  at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  seem  to  be 
halted,  hence  he  vents  the  intensity  of  his  feeling  with  a  few 
ready  phrases  and  some  vigorous  slang,  which  seem  well  suited 
to  his  needs;  "verbalization,  like  appetites,  is  now  prone  to  rut- 
tiness."  It  is  during  adolescence,  too,  that  there  is  a  tendency 
toward  superlatives;  and  admiration  for  flowery  and  declam- 
atory prose  styles  makes  its  appearance,  the  liking  for  rhyme 
and  rhythm  coming  earlier.     All  these  interests  and  promp- 


MENTAL  GROWTH  AND  RECONSTRUCTION  87 

tings  are,  in  the  last  analysis,  distinctly  human,  and  care  should 
be  taken  that  they  are  not  dehumanized  by  spiritual  indiffer- 
ence or  by  removing  things  and  ideas  from  their  social  setting. 
l^  Education  for  the  adolescent  must  be  of  the  heart  as  well  as 
of  the  intellect. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR  IMPORT 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  describe  the  most  important 
aspect  of  adolescence;  the  changes  in  the  social  attitudes  and 
proclivities  which  occur  at  this  period  are  the  most  interest- 
ing of  all  the  adolescent  characteristics,  because  they  are  so 
human;  and  they  are  fraught  with  the  greatest  possibilities 
for  individual  growth  and  character  formation.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  adolescent  suddenly  becomes  sensitive  to  the  aspects 
of  nature,  but  he  is  much  more  sensitive  to  the  influences  of 
his  social  environment.  He  is  pretty  sure  to  begin  by  imitat- 
ing the  social  order  in  which  he  finds  himself;  he  seems  even 
to  imitate  the  social  will  of  his  group.  For  a  time  he  is  pulled 
and  pushed  by  the  social  standards,  customs,  and  ideals  of 
those  of  his  age  with  whom  he  happens  to  be  placed.  Why 
should  it  be  otherwise?  As  we  shall  see  later,  his  love  of  appro- 
bation is  coming  to  be  one  of  his  controlling  instincts;  moraUty 
naturall^^omes  to  be  identified^with  that  conduct  which  se- 
cures social  approval;  conduct  at  this  time  cannot  embody 
the  results  of  a  broad  survey  of  or  conformity  to  a  consci- 
entiously thought  out  system  of  morals,  much  as  the  adolescent 
is  interested  in  moral  issues  and  theories.  His  morality  in 
its  simplest  and  purest  form  accepts  the  laws  which  obtain 
in  his  group;  this  establishes  for  him  social  harmony,  which 
is  just  now  so  necessary  to  his  happiness;  and  thus  it  comes 
to  pass  that  the  acts  and  modes  of  conduct  which  reign  in  his 
social  environment  are  easily  thought  of  as  good  and  they  read- 
ily assume  the  validity  of  moral  laws  which  must  be  obeyed 
if  he  hopes  to  be  socially  secure.    Hence  thi^jressuifi-^^f-so- 

88 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR  IMPORT      89 

cial  circumstances  strongly  tends  to  build  up  and  organize  an 
inner~world  that^will  harmonize  with  the  outer  worlds  which 
is  now  pressing  upon  him  in  so  many  concrete  forms;  and  thus 
the  elements  of  character  are  being  compounded.  This  is 
why  the  social  life  of  the  adolescent  is  so  important. 

In  our  study  of  preadolescence  we  found  that  the  individual 
appears  to  be  living  through  a  period  that  rather  closely  re- 
peats a  relatively  ancient  stage  in  racial  development,  think- 
ing most  of  self  and  of  everything  and  everybody  as  effecting 
self.  The  preadolescent  values  these  for  their  immediate  use 
to  him;  he  is  ego-centric.  Moreover,  he  is  well  organized  and 
extremely  efficient  in  all  that  makes  for  self-preservation.  In 
the  succeeding  stage  of  development  the  viewpoint  and  the 
conduct  of  the  individual  seem  to  parallel  a  much  later  and 
more  advanced  period  in  racial  development;  the  higher  racial 
traits  tend  to  become  dominant,  and  "the  flood  gates  of  he- 
redity" are  now  open  wide.  The  youth  is  still  thinking  of  self, 
for  self -feeling  has  greatly  increased,  Jbut^Jsjthinking  of  self 
as  related  to  others;  things  and  people  come  to  have  a  value 
for  their  own  sake;  he  is  hetero-centric.  Although  he  may  be 
unconscious  of  it,  his  mode  of  thinking  and  much  that  he  does, 
as  well  as^s  physiological  development,  are  looking  toward 
race  preservation.  The  adolescent^s  social  nature  and  behav- 
ior ,^!s^nasjiisjnent^^  physical  natures,  are  greatly  broad- 
ened ,^d  intensified.  Heretofore  he  was  interested  in  his 
immediate  surroundings,  now  he  would  know  what  is  beyond; 
a  strange  and  veritable  wanderlust  often  takes  possession  of 
him.  Everything  about  him  suggests  an  expanding  person- 
ality, which  is  trying  to  realize  itself  in  a  new  and  enlarged  en- 
vironment with  which  he  would  be  in  more  vital  accord. 

The  social  tendencies  and  characteristics  which  appear  at 
this  time  are  so  vigorous  and  so  well  defined  after  they  get  under 
way,  and  their  nature  seems  to  be  so  deep-seated  and  funda- 
mental and  at  the  same  time  universal,  that  they  have  been 


90  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

classified  as  social  instincts.  All  who  have  observed  these 
phases  of  adolescent  development  are  aware  that  these  instincts 
do  not  suddenly  take  control  of  the  individual;  there  is  often 
a  vacillation  between  the  traits  and  attitudes  of  the  child  and 
the  nascent  tendencies  of  youth.  Frequently  the  conflict  seems 
like  a  struggle  between  the  individual  and  himself,  appearing 
sometimes  as  the  obstructed-will  type  and  sometimes  as  the 
precipitate  and  over-impulsive  type.  In  any  case  it  may  give 
rise  to  considerable  contradictory  and  inconsistent  behavior. 
But,  when  these  social  instincts  do  assert  themselves,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  about  their  significance  and  their  effectiveness. 
The  first  to  appear  and  the  one  which  shows  stronger  in  man 
than  in  any  other  animal  is  gregariousness;  it  is  that  urgent 
prompting  which  makes  it  imperative  that  people  of  this  age  get 
together.  Up  to  this  time  they  have  found  much  that  interested 
them  in  their  home  and  the  activities  that  center  there;  and 
their  parents  have  been  delighted  to  think  of  them  as  home 
bodies.  This  tendency  J:o  be  satisfied  with  a  relatively  small 
social  horizon  is  sometimes  "^augmented"  during  the  opening 
years  of  adolescence,  especially  in  the  case  of  boys,  by  that 
feeling  of  extreme  self-consciousness,  already  referred  to,  which 
appears  at  puberty,  due,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  rapid  physical 
and  mental  changes  with  their  attendant  clumsiness  and  em- 
barrassments; that  is,  the  full  maturing  of  the  instinct  of  gre- 
gariousness may  be  preceded  by  a  brief  antisocial  period,  in 
which  boys  seem  almost  to  dislike  society,  particularly  that  of 
girls,  fearing  they  may  blunder  or  in  some  way  act  foolish. 
But  very  soon  the  social  atmosphere  clears;  the  adolescent 
seeks  society,  especially  of  his  own  age;  and  there  is  shown 
much  interest  of  a  new  kind  in  the  opposite  sex.  All  sorts  of 
schemes,  such  as  parties,  picnics,  and  social  organizations, 
are  devised  to  make  opportunities  for  coming  together.  When 
not  in  each  other's  company,  the  youthful  mind  is  much  occu- 
pied with  thoughts  that  pertain  to  friends  and  to  social  experi- 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR  IMPORT      91 

ences,  either  past  or  future,  real  or  imaginary.  Nearly  every- 
thing is  given  a  social  setting.  This  craving  for  the  company 
of  others  outside  of  the  family  and  the  persistent  way  in  which 
the  adolescent  wiU  satisfy  it  is  often  extremely  disturbing  to 
parents,  and  it  is  sometimes  unjustly  attributed  to  lack  of  affec- 
tion or  gratitude.  On  the  contrary^  ought  to  be  interpreted 
as  a  sign  of  a  natural  and  vigorous  social  development^  a  yeam- 
ing~which  must  be  met  by  the  proper  social  response  if  its  great 
educational  possibiUties  are  realized.  The  iflfluences  which 
come  to  the  individual  through  these  social  channels  at  this 
time  are  the  most  subtile,  as  well  as  the  most  potent,  of  all 
life's  experiences;  for  a  time  they  are  more  powerful  for  good 
or  for  evil  than  the  influences  of  parents,  teachers,  and  books 
combined,  xjt  is^  time  when  the  adolefcent  feels  that  he  and 
his  group  understand  more  fully  and  know  better  all  thaf 
is  eTsentiaTTo  life  and  conduct  than  older  people,  who,  as  it 
seems  to  him,  have  lost  step  with  the  times;  hence,  there  is  a 
tendency  for  a  time  to  be  fundamentally  impervious  to  adult 
influences.  Fortunate  is  the  adolescent  who  is  surrounded  by 
boys  and  girls  qi  his  age  that  are  wholesome,  enthusiastic,  and 
right-minded;  when  this  is~T5e  case,  he  is  quite  safe,  and  his 
envijronment  is  his  salvation. 

Another'  and  an  encouraging  social  trait  which  usually  be- 
comes well  marked  at  this  time  is  sympathy  or  fellow-feeling, 
shown  by  the  disposition  and  the  ability  to  enter  appreciatively 
into  the  Uves  of  others.  As  William  James  has  pointed  out, 
this  does  not  follow  from  mere  gregariousness.  Sympathy  has 
often  been  classed  by  the  writers  on  ethics  as  an  emotion,  but 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  much  sympathy  is  instinctive  and 
a  prinutive  endowment;  TFgives  rise  to  feeUngs  and  emotions 
corresponding  in  kind,  if  not  in  degree,  to  those  experienced 
by  the  one  for  whom  sympathy  is  felt-  but  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily include  intellectual  approbation J^  Adolescent  sympathy 
is  e;^fii1y  HisrnvprpH  amnng  high-Srho^l  p^ipil^r^  ^gp^rJall}^  when 


92  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

one  of  their  number  is  in  trouble  of  any  kind;  whatever  the 
trouble,  or  whoever  the  pupil  may  be,  there  will  be  a  sympath- 
etic response;  flowers  will  be  sent  or  some  way  found  to  give 
expression  to  their  spontaneous  feelings.  This  is  very  different 
from  a  kind  of  imitative,  momentary  sympathy  sometimes 
shown  by  younger  children.  The_  aj^pearance^  of  this  charac- 
teristic furnishes  an  instinctive  basis  on  which  to  build  much 
moral  training;  without  it  there  could  be  no  real  benevolence 
or  real  charity:  all  true  philanthropy,  which  is  a  relatively 
modern  form  of  expression,  takes  its  rise  from  this  instinct; 
in  fact,  the  commonplace  virtue  of  kInMess  is  prompted  by 
it.  /  In  general  it  is  found  that  the  most  highly  developed  in- 
dividuals have  shown  the  strongest  adolescent  sympathy;  in 
other  words,  they  are  the  farthest  removed  from  physical  and 
brute  nature.  Without  this  distinctively  human  trait  there 
would  be  no  place  for  ethics  either  in  theory  or  in  practice; 
it  is  necessary  as  a  basis  for  the  best  service  to  one's  fellow 
beings;  and  it  brings  a  kind  of  solace  which  nothing  else  can 
give.  But^this  instinct  needs  guidance  during  its  efflorescent 
stage;  for  it  may  die  for  lack  of  exercise,  or  it  may  degenerate 
infrL--tumiimpntaTT^tD^_or2iF^^  be^narrowcd  into  fetishistic 
forms.  To  deal  properly  with  this  instinct  is  one^of  the  prob- 
lems of  moral  education.  There  is  involved  a  nice  distinction 
and""adjustmeiit  in  finding  the  true  balance  between  adaptation 
to  the  tastes  of  others  and  a  sincere  and  worthy  self-expression, 
between  self-abnegatTon  aiid  chronic  opposition  to  others. 
The  deep  and  fundamental  virtue  of  truthfulness  is  involved. 
Like  the  other  instincts,  sympathy  is  not  always  a  safe  and  ade- 
quate guide  for  actiqp;  like  love  and  anger,  it  is  sometimes 
blind  and  must  be  educated  and  regulated  by^  reason;  when 
properly  disciplined  and  controlled  it  supplies  a  natural  basis 
for  many  of  the  social  and  moral  virtues. 

Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  of  aU  the  social  instincts  is 
theloye_ijfapprobation,  which  becomes  so  conspicuous  during 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR  IMPORT      93 

adolescence.  As  we  have  seen,  there  is  often  a  short  period 
in  the  early  teens  when  the  boy  or  girl  appears  calloused  and 
indiifferent  to  the  opinionsof  others;  but,  as  already  intimated, 
this  is  largely  protective  conduct  (possibly  instinctive)  due  to 
a  desire  to  conceal  the  real  state  of  mind,  and  not  to  be  inter- 
preted as  in  any  way  indicating  disregard  for  what  others  think; 
it  is  because  the  youtfi  is  concerned  about  the  opinion  of  others 
that  this  attitude  of  apparent  indifference  is  assumed.  How- 
ever, this  period  soon  passes  and  is  replaced  by  a  strong  and 
evident  desire  to  please  others,  particulaj]^  the  opposite  sex. 
As  HairexpfessesTt,~^^^ere  is  a  new  sense  of  passing  some  kind 
of  unwritten  examination  in  the  world's  school  and  a  new  ri- 
valry to  stand  high  and  not  low  upon  the  multiplying  and  length- 
ening scales."  To  win  good- will  becomes  with  a  majority  of 
adolescents  the  most  powerful  motive,  sometimes  a  sort  of 
" rulingTJasstoii.^^  We^ee  it  in  its  most  emphatic  and  instinc- 
tive form  in  courtship.  Another  all-compelling  form  of  the 
same  instinct  is  the  desire  for  renown,  fame,  glory.  It  is  a 
truism  to  say  that  these  are  incentives  which  stimulate  human 
beings  to  the  greatest  efforts  of  mind  and  body  of  which  they 
are  capable,  although  "  the  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 
It  is  because  of  the  universal  nature  of  this  instinct  that  public 
sentiment  or  the  will  of  the  people,  when  it  finds  adequate 
means  of  expression,  has  such  telling  influence.  The  ado- 
lescent's  strong  desire  to  please  is  manifested  in  more  ways  than 
any  study  has  yet  been  able  to  enumerate:  the  attention  given 
to  the  smallest  details  that  affect  personal  appearance,  includ- 
ing the  toilet,  ribbons,  rings,  pins,  perfumes,  flowers,  new  colors, 
latest  fads  and  fashions;  the  much  thought  given  to  manners, 
such  as  assumed  vivacity,  tricks  of  speech,  pronunciation, 
diction,  penmanship,  affected  ease  in  bearing,  overprecision, 
poses  of  all  kinds  such  as  appear  in  the  fashion  books,  affected 
smiles,  imperturbability,  abandon, —  ringing  the  changes  on 
these  and  many  other  ways  of  trying  to  attract  attention  and 


94  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

to  please.  ^All  who  deal  with  high-school  pupils  know  how 
quickly  any  bit  of  slang,  catchy  manner,  or  peculiar  style  of 
dressing  permeates  the  student  body.  Boys  hope  to  win  appro- 
bation by  some  sort  of  feat  or  stunt  which  displays  skill,  strength, 
fleetness,  and  especially  courage;  the  presence  of  the  girls  stim- 
ulates and  refines.  LThe  supreme  effort  that  is  often  made  at 
this  time  to  control  a  troublesome  temper  is  an  interesting  ex- 
ample of  how  one  instinct  may  inhibit  and  supersede  another 
and  indicates  the  power  of  the  instinctive  tendency  under  con- 
sideration. "7  The  state  of  mind  which  takes  its  rise  at  ado- 
lescence often  becomes  fixed  and  carries  over  into  the  years  of 
maturity.  There  are  many  men  and  women  who  seem  to  re- 
tain their  instinctive  adolescent  fervor  when  in  the  company  of 
the  opposite  sex;  their  whole  manner  is  suddenly  transformed. 
The  poet  Bums  is  a  classical  example  of  this  sensitiveness  and 
quick  response  to  the  influence  of  sex.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  the  strong  desire  for  approbation  natural  at  this  time  can 
be  made  a  most  powerful  lever  in  the  hands  of  an  adult  whose 
function  it  is  to  deal  with  adolescent  boys  g-nd  girls;  they  tend 
to  become  what  those  whom  they  respect  think  they  are.  This 
principle  finds  many  illustrations  in  the  reminiscences  of  high- 
school  life  collected  by  Irying^King  and  published  in  his  book 
on  "The  High-School  Age."  All  successful  workers  with  ado- 
lescents in  any  capacity  are  constantly  proving  its  efficiency 
as  a  natural  and  wholesome  stimulant  to  better  effort  and  con- 
duct. This  instinct  can  be  made  to  bloom  naturally  into  cour- 
tesy and  affability,  and  these,  when  they  become  habitual, 
tend  to  react  on  the  deeper  nature  of  the  individual  and  make 
him  what  he  seems. 

We  found  the  preadolescent  delightfully  and  effectively  sel- 
fish; he  is  our  true  barbarian.  He  is  clothed,  fed,  sheltered, 
taught,  and  he  takes  "no  thought  of  the  morrow;"  all  currents 
set  his  way.  His  parents  live  for  him,  and  he  expects  it  with- 
out giving  the  matter  a  moment's  thought;  in  fact  he  expects 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR  IMPORT      95 

even  his  whims  to  be  heeded.  But  with  the  advent  of  puberty, 
or  soon  after,  the  currents  should  set  the  other  way.  Now  is 
bom  in  the  soul,  if  ever,  that  highest  of  all  the  instinctive  and 
social  virtues;  life  must  now  become  altro-centric  if  the  highest 
stage  in  the  process  of  socialization  of  the  individual  is  to  be 
reached.  The  spirit  of  altruism  is  an  infallible  index  to  the 
progress  of  either  the  individual  or  the  race;  it  is  the  central 
virtue  of  Christianity,  embodied  in  the  golden  rule,  difficult 
to  attain  in  its  perfection,  perhaps  reached  only  once,  but  worthy 
of  all  effort,  and  due  for  cultivation  during  all  the  years  of  ado- 
lescence. The  advent  and  manner  of  growth  of  this  instinct 
and  its  corresponding  emotions  are  perplexing  and  often  dis- 
couraging; it  may  be  said  to  come  in  streaks,  and  it  often  alter- 
nates with  the  grossest  fprms  of  selfishness;  the  old  and  the  new 
laws  of  being  seem  to  struggle  for  the  mastery,  and  we  must 
not  expect  the  adolescent  to  do  things  by  halves.  The  billowy 
currents  of  his  on-rushing  nature  throw  him  sometimes  back- 
ward on  the  archaic  rocks  of  selfishness  and  sometimes  on  the 
banks  where  bloom  the  flowers  of  chivalry;  self-subordination 
and  much  thought  for  the  welfare  of  others  alternate  with  out- 
croppings  of  greed  and  pure  selfishness.  Altruism  is  a  plant  of 
slow  and  uncertain  growth  and  almost  never  completely  matures; 
as  Hall  says,  *'we  see  in  adults  noble  lives  and  acts  veined 
with  petty  meannesses,  which  are  the  residual  and  unreduced 
organs  of  childhood."  Because  of  the  appearance  during  ado- 
lescence of  this  instinct,  it  is  an  age  of  imselfishvgws  and 
pledges  of  devotion  to  causes  calling  for  much  self-sacrifice  and 
painful  servitude;  it  is_an  age  of  reforms  (all  have  at  times 
been  reformers)  and  an  age  when  social  service  is  included  in 
one's  life-plansj^noble  visions  and  deep  sympathies  are  in  the 
ascendant.  Because  of  the  strong  impulses  which  are  now 
surging,  because  of  the  lack  of  intellectual  perspective,  and 
because  of  the  glorious  optimism  of  youth,  we  must  expect  con- 
siderable ill-directed  enthusiasm;  and  far  be  it  from  any  adult, 


g6  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

acting  in  the  light  of  his  wider  experience,  to  daunt  this  enthusi- 
asm, for  it  is  the  best  contribution  which  youth  makes  to  a 
world  grown  stale  with  experience. 

It  is  by  reason  of  these  maturing  social  instincts,  with  their 
resultant  emotions,  that  the  deeper  and  more  subtile  elements 
of  personality  are  coming  into  existence  and  being  blended, 
and  a  rich  and  well-rounded  life  is  being  shaped;  character  at 
this  timCj^if  ever,  takes  on  beauty  and  solidity;  and  the  whole 
strange  alchemy  which  results  in  real  manhood  and  real  woman- 
hood is  working  too  rapidly  and  too  subtilely  to  be  understood. 

If  the  foregoing  account  of  the  social  instincts  is  correct, 
it  follows  that  adolescence  is  the  time  when  the  indi^ddual 
shoul(ijtake  possession  of  his  social  heritage,  "when,"  as  Slaugh- 
ter suggests,  "adaptation  is  made  to  the  whole  group  of  non- 
material  resources  of  the  race,  intellectual,  moral,  artistic,  and 
religious."  Failure  to  accept  this  social  inheritance  and  con- 
sequently to  make  the  proper  adjustment  to  one's  surround- 
ings means  social  inetticiency,  whichTs  the  cause  of  untold  fail- 
ure^  misery,  and^despair.  There  is  nothing  more  pathetic 
in  all  human  experience  than  the  state  of  mind  that  results  from 
repeated  failure  due  to  lack  of  social  efficiency.  The  one  thus 
failing  has  the  best  of  intentions  and  puts  forth  his  utmost  effort, 
yet  is  fated,  as  it  seems  to  him,  to  dismal  failure;  and  he  never 
suspects  the  cause^  for  the  cause  is  negative  and  lies  in  a  for- 
gotten part  of  his  life's  history;  he  is  enacting  a  continuous 
tragedy,  for  his  aspirations  cannot  carry  him  over  his  inexor- 
able social  limitations. 

^/Hence,  the  cardinal  problem  of  adolescence  is  how  best  to 
foster  and  direct  the  many  social  instincts  and  impulses;  in 
other  words,  how  to  make  the  strongest  social  appeal  in  the 
interest  of  strong  character  and  right  living.  All  efforts  to 
help  —  physically,  mentally,  and  morally  —  must  be  given  a 
social  setting.  At  this  age  the  individual  is  sustained  and  nour- 
ished by  the  social  medium  in  which  he  is  placed;  and,  because 


SOCIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  THEIR   IMPORT      97 

of  the  vital  unity  of  human  nature,  if  this  medium  is  rich  and 
wholesome,  all  will  go  well.  Thi^  meq^s  Jhat.  the.much-to-be- 
desired  social  training,  whicMn  the  lastjinalysis  includes  moral 
training,  can  only  be  given  by  means  of  concrete  situations, 
and  these  are  sure  to  arise.  As  has  been  shown,  the  adolescent 
will  plan  many  ways  to  bring  them  about;  and  iUs  Uie  work  of 
adults  to  see  that  youth  is  surrounded  by_adequate  protection 
from  the~iiatural  dangers  and  that  the  wayfarer  has  proper 
guidance.  It  is  only  bycontact  with  concrete  social  situations 
that  the  adolescent  can  learn  to  evaluate  the  various  elements 
which  make  up  any  situation.  It  often  resolves  itself  into  a 
matter  of  social  conformity.  Dr.  Royce  assures  us  that,  "So- 
cial conformity  gives  us  social  power.  Such  power  brings  to  us 
a  consciousness  of  who  and  what  we  are.  Now,  for  the  first 
time,  we_begin  to  have  a  will  of  our  own.  And  hereupon  we 
may  discover  this  will  to  be  in  sharp  conflict  with  the  will  of 
society.  This~is  what  normally  happens  to  most  of  us,  for  a 
time  at  least,  in  youth."  This  conformity  to  the  social  will  is 
about  the  only  morality  that  many  people  ever  know;  and, 
if  it  is  not  allowed  to  become  self-effacing  in  its  effects,  it  makes 
for  social  efficiency,  and  social  efficiency  is  synonjonous  with 
success. 

The  discussion  of  this  important  subject  will  be  continued  in 
a  more  concrete  form  in  Chapter  XI,  which  deals  with  the  high- 
school  problem  of  "  Social  Activities." 


CHAPTER  VII 
MORAL  ASPECTS 

In  a  previous  chapter  it  was  stated  that,  during  the  unique 
period  of  preadolescence,  the  child,  in  the  deepest  sense  of  the 
terms,  is  neither  moral  nor  immoral,  that  he  is  rather  unmoral. 
His  conduct  may  be  very  satisfactory  and  pleasing,  or  it  may 
be  very  annoying  and  often  is  so  to  those  who  are  not  interested 
in  him.  Whatever  he  is,  it  is  largely  the  result  of  imitation  or 
of  what  has  been  imposed  upon  him  by  adults.  He  gives  little 
thought  to  his  conduct  as  such.  But  not  so  with  the  ado- 
lescent; the  period  of  habitual  morality  has  closed;  whatever 
his  actions  may  be,  we  can  be  certain  that  the  adolescent  is 
thinking  about  conduct;  he  is  becoming  a  moral  being,  as  the 
old  theology  expresses  it,  a  free  moral  agent.  Is  it  strange  that 
he  turns  part  of  his  newly  acquired  ability  for  independent 
thinking  toward  moral  and  later  toward  ethical  problems? 
These  matters  of  conduct,  like  the  rest  of  his  problems,  he  must 
settle  for  himself.  Then,  too,  the  unwonted  violence  of  life's 
stream  is  driving  him  toward  and  into  courses  of  conduct  that 
are  as  marvelous  and  puzzling  to  him  as  are  the  physiological 
manifestations  from  which  the  moral  awakening  takes  its  rise. 
Thus  adolescence,  when  viewed  in  its  moral  aspects,  presents 
innumerable  and  vital  problems.  The  problems  are  vital  be- 
cause the  final  test  of  human  endeavor  is  conduct,  the  deter- 
minant of  the  status  of  both  the  individual  and  the  race.  Again 
we  find  adolescence  a  critical  period. 

We  have  already  found  that  there  is  a  time  following  closely 
the  on-coming  of  puberty  when  the  center  of  personality  is 
physical  rather  than  mental,  when  the  individual  often  seems 

98 


MORAL  ASPECTS  99 

swamped  by  the  unfamiliar,  on-rushing  flood  of  physical  im- 
pulses that  are  beating  down  all  the  old  landmarks,  and  as  yet 
nothing  has  come  to  take  their  place.  It  is  a  time  when,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  hereditary  forces  are  asserting  themselves; 
they  are  strong,  and  they  are  so  new  and  strange  to  the  individ- 
ual that  they  are  not  easily  governed.  During  these  years  the 
adolescent,  at  any  rate  the  boy,  takes  delight  in  brushing  aside 
many  of  the  old  restrictions  and  breaking  away  from  the  line 
of  conduct  which  he  has  followed  so  long  that  it  has  become 
habitual.  As  he  often  thinks  seriously  about  himself  and  his 
conduct,  he  wonders  about  this  new  wildness  and  he  finds  it  just 
as  puzzling  as  do  his  parents  and  teachers;  and  he  may  specu- 
late as  to  how  it  will  all  end.  Some  time  during  this  trying 
period  the  boy  or  girl  is  likely  to  assume  an  attitude  of  cock- 
sureness  toward  things  in  general;  there  is  a  noticeable  lack  of 
docility,  which  brings  its  train  of  difficulties;  the  myth  that 
elders  are  to  be  trusted  as  guides  and  advisers  because  of  their 
wisdom  bom  of  experience  is  exploded;  and  the  adolescent  pre- 
fers to  work  out  his  own  philosophy  of  life. 

The  difficulties  for  those  who  are  responsible  for  youth  at 
this  disturbing  time  are  greatly  increased  by  reason  of  the  wide 
range  of  individual  differences  manifested  in  moral  develop- 
ment; each  case  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  imique,  at  least  it 
so  appears  to  the  adolescent  himself;  and,  if  he  thinks  that 
his  interests  and  aims  are  not  imderstood  and  appreciated, 
which  often  happens,  he  may  become  for  a  time  morose  and 
retire  within  himself,  being  possessed  of  a  kind  of  self-pity. 
The  difficulty  is  perhaps  more  likely  to  take  this  form  with 
girls  than  with  boys.  Occasionally  the  process  of  getting  out  of 
this  antisocial  mood,  when  the  promptings  to  break  away  from 
the  established  order  of  things  are  strong,  is  a  long  and  painful 
one;  for  the  emotions  are  surging  so  violently  that  any  attempt 
toward  a  re-formation  of  character  and  conduct  along  the  Hues 
suggested  by  the  new  thought  processes  may  be  thwarted. 


lOO  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

It  is  a  peculiar  psychological  condition  due  to  physiological 
causes,  a  case  where  the  chief  physician  in  working  a  real  cure 
is  the  adolescent  himself,  who  is  temporarily  disordered  and 
sees  "as  through  a  glass  darkly." 

As  might  be  expected,  it  is  during  this  yeasty  stage  of  devel- 
opment that  pupils  from  choice  leave  school  in  the.  largest  num- 
bers. As  matters  are  now  generally  arranged,  there  is  a  break 
in  the  educational  ladder,  which  most  unfortunately  coincides 
with  the  period  of  greatest  unrest.  The  ordinary  restraints 
of  the  classroom  and  authority  constantly  imposed  from  with- 
out become  irksome  past  endurance;  and  at  the  same  time  the 
larger  freedom  and  greater  activity  of  the  world  outside  of 
school  are  calling  the  pupil  and  promising  more  scope  for  the 
new  forces  that  are  welling  up  within.  This  is  the  time  of 
truancy  and  running  away  and  all  the  other  troubles  that  a 
restless,  unformed,  and  undisciplined  nature  naturally  gives 
rise  to.  The  boy  in  school  at  this  time  often  feels  like  some 
wild  animal  in  a  cage  and  his  chaJ&ng  is  like  in  kind;  the  blood 
of  his  feudal  ancestors  is  surging  in  his  veins,  and  he  may  yield 
to  a  yearning  to  be  up  and  away,  leaving  the  stupid  routine 
of  the  schoolroom  behind  him. 

"A  boy's  will  is  the  wind's  will, 
And  the  thoughts  of  youth  are  long,  long  thoughts." 

All  who  have  passed  through  a  vigorous,  typical  adolescence 
under  the  conditions  of  modern  civilization  have  at  times  ex- 
perienced this  vague,  impulsive  longing  to  break  away  from  all 
outward  restraint  and  once  for  all  assert  self  to  the  limit;  and 
all  such  should  be  able  to  enter  sympathetically  into  the  feel- 
ings of  the  restless  creature  now  held  in  captivity. 

This  condition  growing  out  of  a  restless  surplus  of  energy 
and  an  unstable  mental  equilibrium  is  not  so  far  removed  from 
the  time  when  the  first  criminal  out-croppings  appear  as  it 
might  seem  at  first  thought.  The  new  emotions  and  impulses 
have  a  driving  force  that  cannot  always  be  withstood;   and, 


MORAL  ASPECTS  '  l6i 

if  the  environment  is  antisocial  (for  instance  a  hooligan  gang), 
the  youthful  wayfarer  is  likely  to  be  either  driven  or  pulled 
into  many  a  devious  path.      It  is  not  strange,  however  dis- 
concerting it  may  be,  that  the  criminal  ranks  are  largely  re- 
cruited from  early  and  middle  adolescence.    The  most  alarm- 
ing consideration  is  that  statistics  show  that  the  proportion 
of  youthful  offenders  to  the  entire  population  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing, and  this  notwithstanding  the  great  faith  of  the  last  genera- 
tion in  the  uplifting  and  civiUzing  influence  of  the  new  educa- 
tion provided  for  all  the  children  of  all  the  people.    This  de- 
pressing fact  is  not  made  less  depressing  when  the  best  students 
of  modem  eugenics  assure  us  that  the  explanation  is  simply 
that  the  birthrate  among  the  morally  unfit  is  much  greater 
than  among  the  morally  sound,  and  that  delinquents  of  nearly 
all  kinds,  including  the  feeble-minded,  the  high-grade  morons, 
the  degenerates,  the  epileptics,  and  the  vicious,  breed  true  and 
follow  the  Mendelian  law.    However,  for  the  purpose  of  this 
study  we  reject  the  born  criminals,  who  are  defined  by  Dr. 
D.  M.  Guyer  as  "those  offenders  who  are  congenitally  unable 
to  distinguish  between  what  is  generally  accepted  as  right  and 
wrong,  or  who  if  recognizing  this  are  nevertheless  uncontrollably 
impelled  toward  or  unable  to  refrain  from  antisocial  acts  be- 
cause of  some  inherent  condition  of  intellectual  or  volitional 
make-up."    Care  must  be  exercised,  however,  in  both  our 
thinking  and  our  practice,  not  to  classify  as  bom  criminals 
those  offenders  whose  troublesome  outbreaks  are  merely  rever- 
berations of  the  savage  life  of  their  distant  progenitors;   these 
ancestral  tendencies  and  primitive  impulses  to  a  wildness  and 
an  almost  resistless  fury  readily  suggest  criminal  instincts,  and, 
if  the  proper  influences  and  control  are  lacking,  youthful  crimes 
and  perhaps  criminals  will  be  the  result.    Nearly  all  vigorous, 
normal  boys  are  Uable  at  certain  stages  in  their  development 
to  manifest  some  of  these  primitive  traits. 
Anything  approaching  a  complete  study  of  the  moral  as- 


162  • '       l»SYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

pects  of  adolescence  must  include  an  account  of  the  kinds  of 
crime  most  common  at  this  period,  their  causes,  and  the  possible 
preventions  and  remedies.  For  our  purpose,  a  criminal  may- 
be understood  to  be  any  person  whose  conduct  is  so  antisocial 
as  habitually  to  include  acts  that  the  community  as  a  whole 
has  decided  by  custom  and  usually  by  law  not  to  tolerate  from 
any  of  its  members,  conduct  that,  if  persisted  in  by  a  large  num- 
ber, would  be  fatal  to  the  integrity  of  the  community  as  making 
impossible  any  life  or  action  in  common;  thus  the  line  of  de- 
marcation between  conduct  that  is  criminal  and  conduct  that 
is  judged  non-criminal  is  largely  fixed  by  convention  and  varies 
greatly  according  to  time  and  place. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  very  seldom  does  any  youth 
pass  suddenly  from  the  comparatively  harmless  pranks  of  child- 
hood to  acts  that  his  community  classes  as  seriously  criminal; 
the  antisocial  acts  of  adolescents  usually  form  a  closely  graded 
series,  which  in  the  case  of  any  individual  tend  toward  being 
progressive;  hence  the  classification  of  these  adolescent  offences 
and  felonies  cannot  be  anything  like  complete.  In  general  it 
has  been  found  that  the  maximal  age  for  malicious  mischief  is 
fourteen,  that  crimes  against  property  lead  all  other  forms  of 
crime  (reaching  a  maximum  at  sixteen),  the  proportion  accord- 
ing to  Drahms  being  fifteen  to  one;  while  statistics  show  that 
crimes  against  persons  reach  a  maximum  between  twenty  and 
twenty-five.  The  worst  time  in  the  life  of  a  youth  is  likely 
to  be  the  year  after  leaving  school,  especially  if  he  leaves  early; 
this  fact  must  have  a  significance  demanding  the  most  serious 
study. 

Perhaps  the  misdemeanors,  least  offensive  because  of  their 
origin,  and  least  dangerous  to  the  individual  when  treated  as 
their  nature  demands,  are  those  that  may  be  classed  as  larks 
and  adventures.  These  usually  originate  with  extremely  ac- 
tive young  people  who  have  a  great  fimd  of  initiative.  These 
misdemeanors  are  generally  the  result  of  an  intense  desire  for 


MORAL  ASPECTS  103 

the  excitement  that  they  furnish  and  the  scope  they  give  for 
the  dare-devil  propensities  so  common  in  the  most  promising 
adolescents.  Often  the  aim  seems  to  be  to  get  just  beyond 
the  law,  there  being  a  great  attraction  toward  any  conduct  that 
breaks  through  the  estabUshed  order  and  much  excitement  in 
doing  what  is  forbidden.  Perhaps  most  frequently  the  satis- 
faction comes  from  anticipating  how  surprised,  how  shocked, 
or  how  angry  some  one  will  be.  In  dealing  with  this  form  of 
oflfense,  for  like  other  adolescent  irregularities  it  must  be  checked, 
the  adult  must  divest  himself  of  all  feeling  of  annoyance  if 
he  would  see  the  situation  in  its  true  hght  and  if  he  would  re- 
tain the  sympathy  and  confidence  of  exuberant  youth;  all 
successful  deaUng  with  people  demands  that  they  be  treated 
as  they  really  are. 

Truancy,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  and  explained, 
is  not  of  necessity  extremely  harmful  in  itself;  but  it  is  likely 
to  lead  to  very  troublesome  and  dangerous  complications,  from 
the  fact  that  the  truant  must  find  some  sort  of  occupation  and 
companions,  and  these  will  naturally  not  be  of  the  best;  it  may, 
also,  easily  be  the  beginning  of  vagabondage  and  vagrancy. 
The  studies  by  L.  W.  Kline  and  others  indicate  that  this  offense 
increases  rapidly  at  and  following  puberty,  the  point  in  the 
life  of  the  individual  corresponding  to  the  time  when  primitive 
people  naturally  become  of  age,  whereas  vagrancy  reaches  its 
maximum  a  little  later.  The  causes  appear  to  be  very  numer- 
ous: the  migratory  instincts  and  consequent  habits  of  dis- 
tant and  primitive  ancestors  are  believed  to  figure  as  remote 
causes,  truancy  being  a  temporary  reversion  to  their  habitual 
mode  of  life;  doubtless  most  of  the  inherent  causes  are  the 
adolescent  characteristics  with  which  we  are  already  familiar, 
such  as,  a  new  love  of  freedom  and  independence,  reaction  against 
authority  of  any  kind,  a  new  feeling  for  nature  resulting  in  a 
strong  desire  to  be  out-of-doors,  the  strange  attraction  of  lake 
and  stream,  a  yearning  for  different  surroimdings  resulting  in 


I04  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

impatience  with  familiar  things  and  habitual  duties  and  the 
monotony  of  routine,  a  moody  love  of  solitude,  the  vague 
charm  of  some-where-else,  the  calls  of  a  developing  motor- 
sense  that  make  travel  of  any  kind  peculiarly  seductive,  and 
the  mere  spirit  of  adventure  so  common  at  this  period;  some- 
times the  exciting  cause  seems  to  be  a  book  of  adventure  oc- 
casionally found  in  possession  of  the  runaway.  Some  combina- 
tion of  these  causes  work  in  a  mysterious  and  subtile  way  to 
tempt  many  adolescents  from  the  narrow  path  of  duty;  and 
hundreds  of  testimonies  prove  that  very  many  are  tempted  who 
do  not  yield.  The  causes  do  not  appear  to  indicate  that  tru- 
ancy and  running  away  are  evidences  of  any  natural  depravity, 
but  they  seem  rather  to  make  it  clear  that  these  offenses  should 
be  anticipated  and  forestalled  by  removing  some  of  the  causes 
and  by  providing  other  ways  for  the  migratory  instincts  to 
function.  Nearly  all  writers  place  much  of  the  blame  for  this 
form  of  delinquency  upon  the  present  educational  system,  which 
without  doubt  was  devised  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  train- 
ing the  intellect,  little  heed  being  given  to  the  other  elements 
of  youthful  natures.  At  any  rate,  the  schools  often  manage 
thoroughly  to  bore  instead  of  interest  the  adolescent  when 
interest  in  general  is  at  its  highest.  It  would  seem  to  be  the 
problem  of  the  teacher  to  fuse  the  necessary  school  activities 
with  such  traits  and  tendencies  as  boys  and  girls  manifest  when 
they  give  expression  to  their  real  nature;  if  this  can  be  done, 
we  have  a  natural  and  effective  means  of  energizing  the  work. 
The  trips  on  foot  and  by  rail  and  automobile  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  courses  in  science  and  history  are  examples  of  how 
many  schools  in  Europe,  as  well  as  several  in  this  country, 
harve  made  the  natural  inclinations  of  this  period  contribute 
to  the  purposes  of  the  school. 

The  studies  of  adolescent  conduct  show  an  exceedingly  large 
amount  of  incorrigibility.  Perhaps  this  might  be  expected, 
because  there  are  physiological,  psychological,  and,  according 


MORAL  ASPECTS  105 

to  Hall,  anthropological  causes,  with  which  we  are  already 
familiar,  for  this  troublesome  form  of  irregularity.  Many  of 
the  causes  are  the  same  as  for  truancy.  As  we  have  seen,  the 
rapid  maturing  of  sex  gives  rise  to  much  unrest  and  general 
physical  disturbance;  it  is  the  time  for  the  beginning  of  inde- 
pendent thinking,  and  there  is  normally  much  emotional  tur- 
moil and  many  impulsive  promptings,  all  tending  somewhat 
to  establish  a  recalcitrant  attitude  toward  authority  and  res- 
traint; and  perhaps  the  echoes  of  those  times  when  far-removed 
adolescent  ancestors  broke  away  from  parental  control  and  set 
out  for  an  independent  existence  are  reverberating  in  the  youth- 
ful incorrigibles.  Incorrigibility  reaches  its  maximum  at  the 
age  of  fourteen,  and  it  is  very  prevalent  from  twelve  to  seven- 
teen inclusive.  Whatever  may  be  the  explanation,  the  home 
must  take  a  large  share  of  blame  for  this  dangerous  form  of 
youthful  delinquency;  incorrigibility  nearly  always  begins  in 
a  lack  of  parental  control  and  spreads  to  wider  fields  later. 
It  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  duty  of  parents  to  understand 
adolescent  nature  as  exhibited  in  their  own  children;  but  very 
often  this  is  not  the  case,  and  there  is  a  sad  lack  of  attention 
to  matters  of  control,  growing  out  of  a  want  of  definiteness 
and  firmness  of  purpose.  Lack  of  sympathetic  understanding 
results  in  unreasonable  demands,  which  are  always  likely  to 
be  ignored,  and  lack  of  firmness  and  consistency  invites  dis- 
obedience. There  is  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  disobedience 
in  the  schools  than  in  the  homes,  notwithstanding  the  much 
greater  numbers  to  be  controlled  and  the  higher  standards  of 
conduct  and  accomplishment  that  are  maintained.  This  form 
of  misdemeanor  is  alarming,  because  it  leads  the  Ust  of  youth- 
ful offenses,  being  nearly  double  any  of  the  others,  and  because 
it  is  likely  to  carry  in  its  wake  all  the  other  misdemeanors  and 
crimes  of  which  adolescents  are  guilty.  So  far  as  the  schools 
are  concerned,  there  must  be  teachers  who  know  adolescent 


I06  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

nature,  who  are  S5anpathetic,  and  who  are  definite,  consistent, 
and  firm  in  their  requirements. 

Like  nearly  every  other  human  trait,  the  power  of  anger  is 
increased  and  much  deepened  at  adolescence.  Nearly  all  nor- 
mal boys  develop  an  added  propensity  to  fight  at  the  beginning 
of  the  period,  and  many  girls  show  more  petulance  and  irritabil- 
ity at  puberty.  Although  this  tendency  does  not  lead  to  so  many 
offenses  as  many  of  the  others,  it  is  something  that  must  be 
got  under  control;  that  is,  the  proper  inhibitions  must  be  set 
up:  nearly  all  action  prompted  by  rage  is  unreasonable,  harm- 
ful, and  sometimes  dangerous.  In  general  there  appear  to 
be  two  common  types  of  anger:  one  which  tends  to  explode 
and  work  itself  out  on  somebody  or  something,  and  another 
which  tends  toward  moroseness  and  sulking,  the  moody,  un- 
forgiving kind.  Either  type  will  be  made  worse  by  humoring; 
both  need  drastic  but  careful  treatment.  The  treatment  natu- 
rally varies  greatly,  because  the  kinds  of  this  disorder  and  the 
individuals  vary  greatly.  The  present  writer  has  much  sym- 
pathy with  the  following  view  expressed  by  J.  W.  Slaughter: 
''As  regards  its  treatment,  it  may  be  observed  that  nothing  is 
more  useful  than  the  Arestotelian  catharsis  as  found  in  the 
usual  boy's  fights.  The  modem  world  is  perhaps  somewhat 
over-civilized  in  its  endeavor  to  prevent  the  healthy  locking  of 
horns  of  young  males  —  the  few  bruises  received  are  a  small 
price  to  pay  for  the  moral  benefits  involved  —  and  the  boys 
themselves  nearly  always  ensure  fairness  and  prevent  resort 
to  violent  methods."  Moreover,  fighting  among  boys,  which 
so  horrifies  a  certain  type  of  adult,  can  be  shown  to  have  other 
important  psychical  values:  it  tends  to  supply  courage  to  the 
timid;  it  forces  concentration  and  stimulates  the  most  intense 
action;  it  calls  for  a  long  series  of  quick  judgments;  and  it 
calls  for  a  high  degree  of  self-control  under  trying  circum- 
stances. If  these  benefits  really  accrue  from  this  strenuous 
form  of  youthful  contest,  there  can  be  little   doubt   about 


MORAL  ASPECTS  107 

the  powers  and  values  gained  carrying  over  into  the  more  tran- 
quil moods  when  the  efforts  are  directed  toward  that  which  is 
immediately  useful;  it  is  a  well-known  biological  law,  that  any 
tissue  adapts  itself  to  the  tension  to  which  it  is  put;  the  violent 
beating  and  twisting  by  the  wind  are  needed  to  give  the  great- 
est strength  of  fiber  to  the  unprotected  oak.  But  fights  are 
not  always  forthcoming,  and  no  one  would  advocate  their 
instigation;  however,  boxing  and  other  forms  of  personal  con- 
tact, when  carefully  managed,  can  be  profitably  used  as  a 
substitute.  In  our  zeal  to  deal  judiciously  with  adolescent 
anger,  we  must  remember  that  complete  control  rather  than 
eradication  should  be  the  end  sought.  Dr.  Hall  maintains 
that  to  be  angry  aright  is  a  great  part  of  a  moral  education. 
"Anger  should  be  a  great  and  diffused  power  in  life,  making 
it  strenuous,  giving  zest  and  power  to  the  struggle  for  survival 
and  mounting  to  righteous  indignation.  Its  culture  requires 
proper  selection  of  objects  and  great  transformation,  but  never 
extermination.  The  healthy  and  complete  male  especially  will 
never  be  an  entirely  peaceful  creature,  and  cowardice  and  the 
loss  of  courage  will  always  mean  some  degree  of  psychic  emas- 
culation." In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  dealing  with  the 
adolescent  tendency  to  uncontrolled  anger  plain  talk  on  the 
part  of  a  responsible  adult  whose  actions  do  not  belie  his  words 
is  always  wholesome,  except  in  a  few  types  where  ignoring  is 
the  best  treatment;  the  tempestuous  youth  must  be  made  to 
understand  in  the  most  emphatic  way  possible  the  unreason- 
ableness and  the  consequences  of  uncontrolled  wrath.  The 
one  who  would  aid  adolescents  in  securing  control  of  temper 
has  a  powerful  ally,  if  use  is  made  of  it,  in  the  strong  desire  that 
arises  at  this  time  to  secure  and  maintain  a  good  social  status; 
it  is  neither  manly  nor  womanly  to  yield  to  uncontrolled  anger, 
and  this  they  must  be  made  to  see. 

Adolescent  cruelty  and  all  the  tendencies  that  lie  in   this 
direction  are  difl&cult  to  explain  either  biologically  or  psycho- 


Io8  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

logically.  There  is  a  form  of  cruelty  frequently  manifested 
in  childhood  due  perhaps  to  curiosity  or  to  thoughtlessness, 
which  should  pass  and  usually  does  when  adolescence  comes. 
But  the  cruelty  which  continues  into  or  begins  during  adoles- 
cence is  a  more  serious  matter  and  is  in  a  sense  unnatural. 
Nearly  all  cruel  tendencies  should  disappear  at  this  time,  for, 
as  has  been  shown,  sympathy  becomes  instinctive  and  fre- 
quently very  marked,  especially  for  any  living  thing  in  trouble. 
Extreme  cases  of  cruelty  are  probably  due  to  hereditary  de- 
fects of  some  kind  and  are  not  infrequently  found  in  individ- 
uals that  show  some  abnormal  sexual  tendencies;  they  seem  not 
to  be  due  to  a  mere  lack  of  S3anpathy;  and  strange  to  say,  a 
youthful  torturer  sometimes  shows  exquisite  sensitiveness  and 
tenderheartedness  for  something,  perhaps  his  pet,  seeming  to 
indicate  that  he  has  "specialized  psychic  zones."  This  un- 
timely adolescent  barbarity  may  in  some  way  have  its  origin  in 
the  ages  when  primitive  man  was  at  enmity  with  nearly  all 
mankind;  the  kindly  and  fraternal  sentiments  have  been  of 
slow  growth  in  the  race.  Whether  the  explanation  is  atavistic 
or  something  simpler  yet  to  be  discovered,  this  is  a  disappoint- 
ing and  discouraging  phase  of  human  nature  which  crops  out 
at  this  time,  for  no  curative  measures  are  known.  When  the 
normal  instinct  of  human  sympathy  is  wanting,  there  seems  to 
be  nothing  upon  which  to  build.  The  cruelly  disposed  must  be 
restrained  through  fear  of  consequences. 

For  some  unknown  reason  a  railway  and  things  connected 
with  it  have  a  strange  interest  and  fascination  for  boys,  espec- 
ially those  living  in  the  country.  To  them  the  men  who  oper- 
ate the  trains  and  care  for  the  roadbed  seem  a  little  different 
from  other  people;  they  seem  a  little  mysterious,  a  little  to 
be  feared,  and  withal  they  are  people  on  whom  the  playing  of 
tricks  furnishes  mild  adventures.  These  pranks  take  the  form 
of  flagging  the  trains,  greasing  the  rails,  placing  explosives  or 
obstructions  on  the  rails,  throwing  stones  at  the  cars  or  through 


MORAL  ASPECTS  109 

the  windows,  stealing  old  metal,  breaking  the  insolating  glass 
on  the  telegraph  poles,  and  any  other  form  of  annoyance  that 
has  in  it  the  desired  amount  of  risk.  This  peculiar  kind  of 
perversity  commonly  continues  to  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen, 
when  it  appears  childish  and  foolish.  The  motive  behind  these 
apparently  meaningless  outrages  is  some  form  of  excitement: 
the  boys  wish  to  see  if  they  will  be  detected;  they  imagine  the 
anger  of  some  one  when  the  trouble  is  discovered;  or  they  find 
this  a  way  of  displaying  a  kind  of  courage  to  the  members  of 
their  group,  for  these  are  seldom  solitary  misdemeanors.  These 
depredations  connected  with  railroads  are  rather  difficult  to 
deal  with  because  the  identity  of  the  guilty  ones  is  easily  con- 
cealed ;  it  is  fortunate  that  they  do  not  carry  over  into  later  life. 
Another  form  of  offense  of  which  nearly  all  real  boys  that 
have  had  the  opportimity  are  guilty  is  that  of  robbing  orchards, 
stealing  melons,  and  the  like;  the  motives  are  probably  about 
the  same  as  those  for  the  misdemeanors  just  discussed.  Of 
course  the  boys  eat  the  things  taken  and  enjoy  them  very  much, 
because  they  are  "stolen  fruit;"  but  this  is  not  the  motive, 
for  they  often  have  all  they  want  of  the  same  thing  at  home. 
Again  the  prime  motive  is  excitement;  and  sometimes  their 
feeling  toward  the  owner  has  its  influence,  as  they  will  rob  with 
greatest  pleasure  the  one  of  whom  they  have  an  unfavorable 
opinion.  Like  many  other  troublesome  adolescent  tendencies, 
it  is  an  expression  of  superabundant  physical  and  mental  energy 
and  should  not  be  classed  with  ordinary  stealing;  for  many 
indulge  in  such  pranks  that  could  not  be  induced  to  take  any- 
thing else;  things  to  eat,  according  to  adolescent  standards, 
appear  to  be  in  a  class  by  themselves.  On  the  whole  it  would 
seem  that  this  is  a  characteristic  of  the  period  not  to  be  taken 
very  seriously;  in  spite  of  anything  that  can  be  done  or  said, 
the  young  offenders  persist  in  thinking  of  the  matter  lightly, 
and  many  adults  with  the  best  of  reputations  and  holding  high 
positions  do  not  regret  their  part  in  such  youthful  escapades. 


no  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

Another  form  of  stealing,  which  the  studies  thus  far  made 
report  as  rather  common,  is  the  practice  on  the  part  of  the  ado- 
lescent of  taking  money  and  other  things  from  members  of 
his  own  family;  and  it  is  found  that  this  seldom  leads  to  steal- 
ing from  people  outside  the  family,  the  idea  being  that  the 
thing  stolen  in  some  sort  of  a  way  belongs  to  him  or  would  be 
given  to  him  if  he  were  urgent  enough  in  asking  for  it.  At 
any  rate,  there  is  always  in  the  mind  of  the  offender  some  kind 
of  a  reason  or  excuse.  To  the  writer  it  seems  that  in  nearly 
all  such  cases  there  is  something  radically  wrong  with  the  family 
arrangements  or  with  the  relations  of  the  members  to  each 
other,  for  this  kind  of  misdemeanor  does  not  appear  to  be  ex- 
plainable by  any  of  the  common  adolescent  traits  and  tenden- 
cies. It  is  a  serious  form  of  combined  selfishness  and  dishon- 
esty which  usually  need  not  be  allowed  to  develop;  it  may  well 
be  treated  as  a  form  of  disloyalty  to  the  family  brought  about 
by  a  lack  of  common  family  interest  and  real  imity. 

Petty  larceny  as  defined  by  law  reaches  its  maximum  at 
fifteen,  although  the  cases  are  almost  as  numerous  at  fourteen 
and  sixteen,  these  years  including  more  cases  than  all  the  other 
years  combined  from  seven  to  twenty-one;  this  is  according 
to  Hall's  table  based  on  the  census  of  1890.  Boys  lead  girls  in 
this  form  of  crime  about  four  to  one.  This  kind  of  misdemeanor 
is  often  serious  and  one  that  should  be  attacked  in  every  way 
that  has  been  found  effective.  It  may  be  thought  of  as  an  ex- 
treme form  of  selfishness  at  a  supposedly  unselfish  age.  The 
motives  which  prompt  stealing  are  very  numerous,  differing 
largely  with  the  nature  of  the  young  thief  and  his  environment. 
It  is  generally  found  that  those  guilty  of  stealing,  as  in  the  case 
of  family  pilfering,  have  in  mind  some  sort  of  an  excuse  or  justi- 
fication, however  ridiculous  it  may  be.  Hall  thinks  that  there 
must  be  a  deep-seated,  vague  instinct  which  gives  rise  to  the 
feeling  that  things  really  belong  to  those  that  need  them  most 
or  can  best  use  them,  for  the  finer  conceptions  of  personal 


MORAL  ASPECTS  ill 

property  came  very  late  in  the  development  of  civilization. 
Stealing  during  childhood  is  usually  to  satisfy  immediate  wants; 
among  the  things  stolen,  edibles  or  money  to  buy  them,  always 
lead.  Thefts  by  fraud  and  stealth  come  later;  and,  as  the 
age  advances,  the  young  offender  develops  larger  plans  to  take 
the  place  of  his  disconnected  thieveries.  The  literature  on 
this  subject  is  full  of  the  accounts  of  predatory  clubs  and  gangs; 
the  most  cowardly  boy  becomes  bold  when  he  "hunts  with  his 
pack."  Perhaps  the  most  readable  description  of  these  thiev- 
ing organizations  and  their  manner  of  operating  in  a  large  city 
is  found  in  Jacob  Riis's  "How  the  Other  Half  Lives."  Asso- 
ciated with  this  organized  stealing  are  nearly  all  the  offenses 
known  to  criminal  law,  sometimes  including  murder.  It  is 
not  certain  that  the  best  way  of  dealing  with  this  form  of  ado- 
lescent misdemeanor  has  yet  been  proposed.  All  the  most 
careful  studies  seem  to  point  to  the  futility  and  ineffectiveness 
of  extreme  penalties,  at  least  as  applied  to  stealing  when  the 
spirit  of  the  gang  is  behind  it,  for  the  one  who  is  "pinched" 
and  punished  at  once  becomes  a  hero,  and  for  an  adolescent  to 
be  a  hero  is  the  strongest  possible  motive.  The  most  effective 
way  thus  far  found  to  deal  with  organized  crime  among  boys 
is  to  turn  the  energies  of  the  gang  into  some  other  form  of  ac- 
tivity; this  is  often  easUy  done  by  those  who  understand  boy 
nature,  as  witness  the  effective  work  with  the  boys  of  New 
York  City  by  Arthur  Woods  when  Police  Commissioner.  Com- 
missioner Woods,  in  pursuance  of  his  work  of  prevention,  sought 
to  supply  the  boys  with  "enough  recreation,  instruction,  and 
employment  to  occupy,  if  possible,  all  their  spare  time."  And 
above  all,  according  to  the  report  given  of  his  work  by  "The 
Outlook,"  he  tried  to  develop  in  them  a  feeling  of  responsibility, 
and  this  he  did  by  organizing  the  Junior  Police;  he  found  that 
the  leader  of  the  toughest  gang  was  always  the  best  "scout." 
In  general  athletics  of  a  strenuous  order  appear  to  supply  the 
surest  remedy.    As  to  individual  thieving,  each  case  is  a  sep- 


112  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

arate  problem  and  the  remedies  are  naturally  as  varied  as  the 
elements  which  are  found  combined  in  the  problem,  the  first 
consideration  being  the  real  nature  of  the  individual  offender; 
then  there  are  the  social,  economic,  and  educational  influences 
that  must  be  reckoned  with.  The  one  object  in  mind  should 
be  reform  and  prevention  and  never  punishment,  unless  as  a 
means.  It  is  pretty  certain  that  much  adolescent  crime  is 
transient  when  the  social  and  moral  surroundings  do  not  con- 
tribute to  the  evil  tendencies  of  this  age.  The  studies  seem  to 
show  that  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  people  in  the  most 
respected  vocations  have  some  time  during  their  lives  been 
guilty  of  theft;  this  consideration  ought  surely  to  plead  for  a 
sympathetic  treatment  of  the  adolescent  with  criminal  tenden- 
cies. 

Lying  on  the  part  of  adolescents  is  extremely  difficult  to  deal 
with.  The  difficulty  seems  to  come  from  many  causes,  one  of 
the  chief  being  that  it  is  not  generally  considered  a  serious  off- 
ense; it  is  troublesome  to  treat  any  fault  that  is  not  held  appro- 
brious  by  society.  Then,  too,  the  forms  of  deception  are  so 
many  and  so  subtile:  in  small  matters,  which  make  up  the  most 
of  life,  false  coloring  easily  slips  in  and  distorts  the  picture; 
considerations  of  policy  and  prudence  lead  to  concealments; 
falsehood  in  the  guise  of  praise  pleases;  kindness  and  courtesy 
suggest  many  modifications;  sometimes  an  untruth  does  not 
seem  a  lie  when  softly  spoken;  and  an  amiable  lie  does  not 
often  give  serious  offense.  Thus  the  adolescent's  instinctive 
desire  to  please  naturally  leads  to  insincere  utterances;  lying, 
as  Ruskin  affirms,  soon  becomes  "  less  a  matter  of  the  will  than 
of  habit." 

The  causes  and  motives  are  extremely  varied,  giving  rise  to 
many  different  kinds  of  lies.  The  first  kind  appears  in  early 
childhood,  is  common  to  nearly  all  intellectually  lively 
children,  and  is  due  to  a  confusion  of  fancy  with  reality.  This 
kind  is  not  in  the  least  dangerous;   it  is  merely  the  sign  of  a 


MORAL  ASPECTS  II3 

Ively  imagination,  which  the  child  sees  fit  to  exercise  along 
with  his  other  budding  faculties.  Like  the  other  faults  and 
virtues  of  early  childhood,  it  has  no  ethical  basis,  and  there 
is  no  reason  why  it  should  carry  over  into  the  later  periods  of 
life.  In  early  adolescence  there  frequently  appears  the  boast- 
ing lie,  the  motive  clearly  being  self-exaltation;  and  it  belongs 
with  the  sho wing-off  tendencies  of  the  period  already  noted. 
In  some  cases  it  may  be  due,  as  has  been  suggested,  to  "a  sting- 
ing sense  of  inferiority"  that  the  youthful  braggart  hopes  to 
cover  up.  This  form  of  lying  when  persisted  in  is  usually 
recognized  on  the  part  of  the  group  by  a  well-chosen  cognomen, 
which  has  for  its  function  the  puncturing  of  the  self-inflation 
of  the  young  aspirant  for  approval.  It  is  a  kind  of  lying  which 
the  group  can  manage  better  than  any  adult,  for  it  often  yields 
to  ridicule.  Closely  akin  to  this  but  of  a  more  general  nature  is 
the  dramatic  lie,  which  is  likely  to  appear  at  about  the  same 
age.  The  motive  here  is  to  produce  some  kind  of  striking  effect 
and  draw  more  attention  to  the  transgressor  than  would  re- 
sult from  plain  truth-speaking.  Girls  are  generally  supposed 
to  be  more  inclined  to  this  type  of  falsehood  than  boys.  There 
is  usually  no  intention  to  deceive;  thus,  it  is  a  bad  social  habit 
to  be  broken  up  rather  than  an  indication  of  an  unfavorable 
moral  bias,  and  it  usually  passes  with  the  passing  of  the  ado- 
lescent desire  for  excitement  and  sensation.  Another  kind  of 
lying,  more  difficult  to  deal  with  and  natural  under  conditions 
often  prevailing  in  childhood  and  youth,  is  that  used  to  escape 
punishment.  It  is  claimed  by  some  writers  that  this  type  of 
lying  also  is  void  of  any  real  moral  qualities,  that  the  conduct 
of  children  is  naturally  established  on  a  practical  basis,  those 
lines  of  conduct  being  chosen  which  in  their  experience  are 
found  to  lead  to  the  desired  result;  hence,  if  young  people  lie 
to  avoid  punishment,  it  is  not  their  fault,  but  it  is  merely  evi- 
dence that  matters  have  been  so  managed  for  them  that  they 
have  learned  that  in  the  long  run  it  pays  to  lie.    If  this  view  is 


114  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

correct,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  such  is  frequently 
the  case,  the  remedy  is  clear  although  perhaps  not  easy  of 
application:  always  manage  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  a  bounty 
on  truth-speaking  and  never  the  reverse.     In  practice  this 
means  that  many  faults  must  go  unpunished  and  many  retali- 
atory feelings  of  adults  remain  ungratified.    When  this  type 
of  lying  persists  in  adolescence,  and  it  is  generally  common,  it 
can  often  be  made  to  appear  as  a  form  of  cowardice,  which 
fundamentally  it  is,  and  few  adolescents,  especially  boys,  wish 
to  be  considered  "yellow;"   lying  is  not  playing  the  game  fair 
and  is  not  good  sportsmanship.    Unless  the  moral  tone  is  very 
low,  the  boy  or  girl  is  always  admired  who  tells  the  whole  truth 
when  the  circumstances  are  such  as  to  call  for  courage  in  so 
doing.     If  the  custom  of  telling  the  truth  about  one's  own  con- 
duct can  once  be  established,  the  individual  offender  will  find 
it  difficult  to  resist  such  a  code  of  honor;   public  sentiment  at 
this  age  is  very  powerful  and  social  pressure  is  quickly  felt. 
This  type  of  lying  is  more  likely  to  exist  where  little  persistent 
effort  is  made  to  get  the  truth,  or  where  punishments  are  ex- 
tremely severe;   it  is  not  wholesome  for  the  adolescent  to  get 
the  notion  that  it  is  easy  and  safe  to  deceive;   and,  contrary 
to  what  one  might  expect,  punishment  for  lying  is  not  effective, 
as  lying  comes  to  be  a  matter  of  taking  chances,  a  species  of 
gambling.    The  last  kind  of  lying  to  be  mentioned  here  is  that 
contemptible  type  known  as  the  hypocritical  lie;   this  form  is 
used  as  a  cloak  for  all  sorts  of  personal  shortcomings,  and  fol- 
lows many  unfortunate  individuals  through  life.    They  are 
trying  to  measure  up  to  the  standards  of  various  kinds  which 
their  community  has  set  but  are  not  quite  succeeding,  and 
they  hope  to  maintain  the  good  opinion  of  their  friends  and 
others  by  insidious  misrepresentations.     When  hypocritical  ly- 
ing has  become  habitual,  it  tends  to  render  the  liar  immune  to 
the  judgments  and  influences  of  his  community;   for  he  con- 
tinuallv  simulates  by  word  and  act  a  course  of  conduct  which 


MORAL  ASPECTS  1 15 

on  the  surface  conforms  to  the  moral  standards  around  him, 
and  he  thus  shuts  himself  off  from  the  normal  and  ever-present 
molding  influence  of  public  opinion.  The  importance  of  root- 
ing out  this  kind  of  lying  before  the  close  of  adolescence  is  evi- 
dent. The  most  natural  remedy  seems  to  be  the  persistent, 
relentless,  and  continuous  exposure  of  the  fabrications,  so  that 
the  despicable  and  worthless  nature  of  these  efforts  at  deception 
are  always  forcibly  impressed.  This  often  implies  much  cour- 
age and  skill  on  the  part  of  those  responsible,  for  the  treatment 
demanded  is  heroic  and  the  ramifications  of  the  false  fabric 
are  frequently  intricate  and  difficult  to  imravel. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  lying  is  so  generally  looked 
upon  as  venial,  since  its  whole  logical  consequence  is  the  dis- 
ruption of  society,  and  since  it  surpasses  all  other  adolescent 
faults  as  a  contributor  to  criminal  tendencies.  It  requires  but 
little  imagination  and  thought  to  see  what  would  happen  to 
society  if  everybody  lied  all  the  time;  and  it  does  not  require 
deep  insight  as  to  the  workings  of  the  human  mind  to  under- 
stand how  much  the  habitually  successful  deceiver  is  tempted  to 
stray  into  all  sorts  of  devious  paths;  the  whole  drift  of  his  life 
is  toward  a  cynical  disregard  for  social  responsibiUty.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  one  who  habitually  and  courageously  speaks 
the  truth  is  socially  benevolent;  he  kindly  serves  his  fellow- 
man  with  the  truth,  which  in  the  long  run  is  always  helpful. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  the  discussion  of  the  nature  and 
treatment  of  all  forms  of  degeneracy  falls  outside  the  scope  of 
this  book.  The  aim  in  the  preceding  account  of  discour- 
aging and  troublesome  adolescent  faults  and  tendencies  has 
been  to  acquaint  the  reader  with  their  nature  and  especially 
to  forestall  any  feeling  of  surprise  or  horror  that  might  arise 
through  a  lack  of  s)mipathetic  understanding.  The  adult 
must  not  lose  faith  in  erring  youth.  Faith,  calmness,  and 
sympathy  are  the  three  elements  much  needed  in  the  normal 
atmosphere  that  surroimds  adolescence.    When  faith,  calm' 


Il6  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

ness,  and  sympathy  are  exercised  by  a  strong  and  pleasing  per- 
sonality, the  youth  of  normal  t3^e  is  comparatively  safe,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  final  outcome  is  concerned. 

Sometimes  it  would  seem  that  nature  has  made  the  moral 
path  of  the  adolescent  difficult;  but  that  is  not  all,  other  in- 
fluences combine  against  him.  The  work  of  those  who  would 
generously  aid  adolescents  in  right  living  and  in  the  building 
of  fine  and  strong  characters  is  greatly  hindered,  and  the  efforts 
of  youth  to  follow  the  path  of  rectitude  are  continually  thwarted 
by  the  many  forms  of  modern  commercialism  which  have 
been  contrived  to  prey  upon  the  sex  susceptibility  of  youthful 
nature.  Adolescent  instincts  and  impulses  are  exploited,  not 
because  of  any  sinister  intention  toward  youth,  but  from  purely 
commercial  and  selfish  motives.  Hundreds  of  traps  are  de- 
vised and  baited  with  subtile  forms  of  suggestion  which  appeal 
to  the  developing  sex  nature:  the  latest  catchy  songs  and  music 
are  insinuatingly  suggestive;  some  of  the  modern  social  dances 
are  devised  to  promote  other  things  than  graceful  movements; 
much  of  modern  fiction  goes  as  far  as  it  dares  in  suggestiveness 
and  the  portrayal  of  questionable  situations,  this  being  the 
surest  way  to  increase  the  sales;  the  flaming  bill-boards  used 
to  advertize  the  theater,  vaudeville,  and  moving-pictures  are 
designed  with  an  understanding  of  the  psychology  of  adoles- 
cence; and  every  vaudeville  bill,  and  many  moving-pictures 
and  plays  have  in  them  enough  that  appeals  to  the  sex  impulses 
to  make  sure  of  the  adolescent  portion  of  their  patronage.  The 
adolescent  boy  is  very  anxious  to  know  all  and  do  all  befitting 
man's  estate,  hence  he  rushes  into  many  dangerous  experiences, 
and  the  one  who  provides  the  means  profits  by  it.  Because 
of  ignorance  of  their  own  developing  functions,  thousands  of 
youths  go  every  year  to  quacks,  who  have  managed  through 
misleading  advertisements  to  alarm  them;  this  happens  be- 
cause parents,  teachers,  and  friends  have  been  too  negligent  or 
too  cowardly  to  deal  with  the  problem  and  furnish  the  needed 


MORAL  ASPECTS  1 17 

and  legitimate  information;  hence  the  selfish  exploitation  of 
perfectly  normal  development  goes  on.  Surely  adolescence  is 
greatly  sinned  against. 

But  fortunately  there  are  other  and  more  encouraging  ten- 
dencies and  characteristics  to  describe;  not  only  is  adolescence 
a  time  of  moral  turmoil  and  danger,  sensitive  to  criminal  lead- 
ings and  easily  exploited,  but  it  is  also  the  period  rich  in  ideals, 
visions,  and  high  aspirations. 

"The  Youth,  who  daily  farther  from  the  east 
Must  travel,  still  is  Nature's  Priest, 
And  by  the  vision  splendid 
Is  on  his  way  attended." 

In  early  adolescence  the^ideals,  to  be  sure,  are  often  crude, 
changeable,  and  vague;  frequently  they  are  ridiculous  and  im- 
possible of  realization;  the  boy  may  want  to  be  a  "pugilist  and 
all-round  sport,"  the  girl  may  wish  to  be  an  actress;  and  at 
this  time  their  ideals  change  rapidly.  But  there  is  an  idealism, 
and  this  idealism  is  very  helpful  in  carrying  the  youth  past  un- 
toward influences  and  aids  greatly  in  shaping  his  life.  When 
middle  and  late  adolescence  are  reached,  the  ideals  tend  toward 
more  permanence,  and,  if  the  social  and  educational  influences 
are  fortunate,  we  may  expect  higher  aspirations  and  a  fine 
spirit  of  altruism.  The  youth  often  believes  that  he  is  to  play 
a  great  and  important  part  in  the  drama  of  life;  he  is  impatient 
with  existing  conditions  and  he  feels  that  he  was  "bom  to 
set  them  right;"  the  older  people  around  him  are  dreaming, 
but  he  is  young  and  he  "sees  visions;"  and  withal  a  splendid 
moral  enthusiasm  carries  him  forward,  and,  if  he  has  real  abil- 
ity and  wholesome  surroundings,  a  pleasing  and  strong  char- 
acter is  taking  shape. 

What  is  the  origin,  meaning,  and  function  of  these  ideals, 
which  are  so  significant  at  this  time?  Literally  the  term  sug- 
gests something  existing  in  the  mind  only;  it  is  a  mental  con- 
ception of  what  is  most  desirable;  for  the  time  being  it  is  thought 


Il8  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

of  as  an  ultimate  aim.  But,  although  in  general  ideals  do  not 
stand  for  objective  realities,  they  must  not  be  conceived  as 
chimeras  or  mere  fancies  and  sentiments.  Any  such  notion, 
besides  being  false,  would  unfit  one  to  deal  successfully  with 
youth.  As  will  be  shown  later,  youthful  ideals  are  determined 
largely  by  the  concrete  surroundings  and  experiences  of  the 
individual;  from  this  aspect  they  have  an  objective  and  sub- 
stantial basis.  An  ideal,  like  an  image,  uninfluenced  by  ex- 
perience and  environment  is  utterly  impossible;  thus,  although 
an  ideal  is  something  intellectually  conceived  and  entirely  novel 
so  far  as  the  one  entertaining  it  is  concerned,  it  is  built  up  from 
knowledge  and  contact  with  the  real  world.  Hence  realities 
dictate  ideals;  and  experience,  education,  or  anything  that 
enlarges  one's  horizon  and  perspective  modifies  one's  old  ideals 
and  brings  new  ones  into  existence.  The  double  origin  of  ideals, 
that  is,  the  individual  and  the  social,  is  rich  in  suggestiveness 
for  those  who  study  adolescence  from  practical  motives:  since 
ideals  are  related  to  one's  nature  and  faculties,  we  are  reminded 
that  no  two  adolescents  are  alike  in  their  outlook  and  aspira- 
tions; and,  because  ideals  are  continually  being  multiplied  and 
modified  by  knowledge  and  experience,  we  see  emphasized 
again  the  importance  of  environment  in  its  relation  to  moral 
growth  and  character  formation. 

At  certain  times  youth  may  be  said  fairly  to  revel  in  a  world 
of  ideals;  instead  of  saying  that  the  youth  gets  ideals,  one  might 
better  say  ideals  get  the  youth.  This  is  especially  true,  as 
R.  S.  Bourne  has  pointed  out,  when  "  the  flood  of  life  is  checked 
in  the  direction  of  pleasure,"  which  is  likely  to  be  selfish,  and 
"it  bursts  forth  in  the  direction  of  ideals."  It  is  in  this  world 
of  ideals  that  the  past  and  future  meet;  the  ideals  are  built  up 
from  all  the  past  accumulated  knowledge  and  experience,  and 
they  beckon  youth  on  to  a  more  glorious  future;  although  they 
have  their  origin  in  the  past,  they  function  as  a  pull  from  before, 
rather  than  a  push  from  behind.    This  is  the  thought  that 


MORAL  ASPECTS  II9 

many  poets  have  given  us:  it  is  "the  heavenly  message"  of 
the  chambered  nautilus  which  Holmes  found  by  the  imresting 
sea;  it  is  the  teaching  of  Tennyson's  Merlin  who  follows  the 
Gleam.  It  is  in  this  zone  of  ideals  that  the  formative  processes 
are  taking  place.  It  is  that  zone  in  individual  development  that 
is  fraught  with  uncertainty  and  dramatic  interest;  other  parts 
of  life  are  relatively  mechanical.  Bourne  believes  that  we  get 
few  new  ideals  after  we  are  twenty;  "a  man's  spiritual  fabric  is 
woven  by  that  time,  and  his  experience,  if  he  keeps  true  to 
himself,  consists  simply  in  broadening  and  enriching  it." 

Although  ideals  uplift  and  brighten  the  life  of  the  adolescent, 
they  naturally  give  rise  to  a  sense  of  incompleteness  and  fre- 
quently discontent;  and  here  lies  the  danger.  Unless  youth 
presses  forward  toward  the  realization  in  part  at  least  of  his 
ideals,  he  will  become,  either  moody  and  out  of  harmony  with 
himself  and  life,  or  he  will  become  a  mere  dreamer  of  dreams. 
We  soon  feel  contempt  for  the  one  all  of  whose  ideals  are  un- 
realized; ideals  alone  do  not  make  a  life  significant;  they  must 
be  backed  by  an  active  will;  there  must  be  brought  about  a 
union  of  reaUty  and  ideality.  This  calls  for  youthful  courage, 
fidelity,  and  endurance;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  trainers 
of  youth  to  encourage  and  hold  the  flickering  attention  to 
the  prosaic  task  of  realizing  worthy  ideals.  The  will  must 
be  tempered  to  the  task;  for  there  is  a  conflict  continually 
going  on  between  instincts,  with  their  accompanying  pleasant 
habits,  and  ideals;  and  youthful  exuberance  and  love  of  pleas- 
ure are  prone  to  follow  the  dictates  of  the  moment,  which  are 
naturally  instinctive  in  their  origin.  ,  It  is  a  conflict  in  which 
youth  needs  adult  aid;  but  it  is  easy  for  adults  to  forget  that 
youth  has  the  really  serious  business  of  life  on  hand  and  that 
the  conflict  is  being  waged  without  the  vantage-ground  which 
age  has  reached.  Those  who  sympathetically  understand  what 
is  happening  at  this  time  can  aid  youth  to  conceive  his  ideals 
more  clearly  and  guard  them  against  particular  momentary 


120  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

impulses,  and  thus  assist  in  conserving  and  directing  the  splen- 
did idealism  and  energy  of  youth.  There  appears  to  be  no 
more  practical  way  of  aiding  the  moral  growth  of  adolescents; 
for  the  ideal  serves  as  an  archetype  for  the  determination  of 
action  and  character.  As  Kant  asserts,  "we  have  no  other 
rule  of  our  action  but  the  conduct  of  that  divine  man  within 
us,  with  which  we  compare  ourselves,  and  by  which  we  judge 
and  better  ourselves;"  though  we  never  really  reach  the  ideal, 
as  it  fortunately  keeps  moving  on.  When  the  origin  and  the 
realization  of  his  ideals  have  a  seat  in  the  will,  the  life  of  youth 
is  greatly  intensified  and  transfigured. 

The  foregoing  rather  general  discussion  of  ideals  and  their 
function  in  moral  development  may  well  be  supplemented  by 
a  brief  account  of  the  studies  of  youthful  ideals  that  have  been 
made  by  Barnes,  Thurber,  Klein,  Friedrich,  and  many  others; 
there  is  sufficient  agreement  to  make  the  results  suggestively 
helpful,  and  their  findings  will  add  concreteness  to  our  thinking. 
All  found  that  ideals  depend  upon  many  conditions,  such  as, 
age,  social  status,  school  education,  environment,  and  sex. 

If  a  curve  is  plotted  to  show  the  proclivity  of  any  particular 
ideal,  it  is  found  that  increasing  age  gives  rise  to  marked  changes. 
Barnes  found  that  in  general  ''local  ideals  die  out  and  are  re- 
placed by  world  ideals;"  this  clearly  makes  for  permanency 
and  growth  in  the  moral  world,  and  is  a  safeguard  against  the 
loss  of  our  social  and  moral  heritage.  As  age  increases,  the 
ideals  are  drawn  more  and  more  from  historical  and  public 
characters  and  heroes  of  philanthropy;  and  the  ideal  occupa- 
tions pass  from  industrial  to  professional  and  technical  pur- 
suits. As  adolescence  advances,  the  youth  is  less  impressed 
with  things  of  material  value,  such  as  wealth  and  beauty,  and 
his  idealism  turns  more  toward  spiritual  values. 

The  ideals  of  adolescents  are  greatly  influenced  by  their 
social  station;  this  well  illustrates  the  fact,  already  noted, 
that  ideals,  like  images,  are  built  up  from  data  already  in  the 


MORAL  ASPECTS  121 

mind.  Poor  children  "look  forward  willingly  to  severe  labor 
and  the  increased  earnestness  of  adolescent  years."  At  twelve 
there  arises  "the  desire  for  the  welfare  of  parents;"  at  thirteen 
the  girl's  ideal  is  to  be  a  dressmaker,  a  clerk,  or  a  stenographer; 
at  fourteen  the  boy's  ideal  is  a  place  in  a  bank  or  office.  All 
expect  to  give  up  the  joys  of  childhood. 

Some  of  the  studies  show  that  ideals  depend  in  a  measure 
upon  the  kind  of  schools  attended;  the  difference  is  marked 
between  different  countries.  Friedrich  found  that  among  Ger- 
man children  historical  characters  lead  at  first,  due  doubtless 
to  the  way  they  are  taught  history  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades;  the  inamediate  environment  of  the  children  seemingly 
had  little  influence.  Neumann,  who  has  given  the  matter  care- 
ful study,  thinks  the  difference  in  the  ideals  of  German  chil- 
dren is  due  to  fimdamental  differences  in  the  German  school 
system. 

As  illustrative  of  the  influence  of  environment,  country  chil- 
dren are  more  altruistic  and  show  more  originality  in  their  ideals; 
American  children  show  more  " expansiveness  of  ideals"  than 
the  children  of  London;  and  a  larger  number  of  the  girls  in 
America  choose  male  ideals  than  do  EngUsh  girls. 

Perhaps  sex  plays  the  most  significant  part  in  the  formation 
of  adolescent  ideals.  According  to  Barnes,  the  girl  is  more 
likely  to  find  her  ideal  within  the  immediate  circle  of  her  acquain- 
tance than  the  boy;  but  there  is  a  marked  tendency,  beginning 
with  the  on-coming  of  adolescence,  to  find  an  ideal  in  some  his- 
toric or  public  character.  Boys  very  seldom,  and  only  when 
very  young,  choose  women  as  their  ideals;  but  in  the  United 
States  two-thirds  of  the  girls  choose  men.  This  seems  very 
unfortunate,  and,  as  Dr.  Hall  understands  it,  shows  a  "divorce 
between  the  life  preferred  and  that  demanded  by  the  interest 
of  the  race;"  and  "saddest  and  most  unnatural  of  all  is  the 
fact  that  this  state  of  things  increases  most  rapidly  during  just 
those  years  when  ideals  of  womanhood  should  be  developed 


122  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

and  become  most  dominant,  till  it  seems  as  if  the  female  char- 
acter was  threatened  with  disintegration."  Girls  are  more 
conservative  in  their  ideals  than  boys;  they  are  influenced  more 
by  ethical  and  social  qualities;  while  the  boys  admire  military 
heroism  and  inventive  genius.  Mere  prowess  and  courage 
appeal  strongly  to  the  adolescent  boy;  he  naturally  despises 
anything  that  savors  of  what  he  calls  "yellow;"  and,  because 
of  his  experiences,  his  ideals  of  sportmanship  are  naturally 
more  highly  developed.  With  the  boy,  group  solidarity  is 
often  exalted  into  an  ideal;  hence  to  weaken  his  allegiance  to 
his  group  is  to  attack  his  idealism. 

In  concluding  this  discussion  of  adolescent  ideals  and  the 
part  they  play  in  the  upbuilding  of  moral  character,  it  is  of 
much  practical  importance  to  remember  that  the  guidance  of 
youth  by  command  must  now  gradually  yield  to  guidance  by 
ideals;  hence  the  shaping  of  conduct  and  character  becomes 
more  and  more  an  affair  of  aiding  in  the  formation  of  youthful 
ideals.  It  is  well  to  recall  Dr.  Hall's  summary  concerning  char- 
acter: character  in  infancy  is  all  instinct;  in  childhood  it  is 
slowly  made  over  into  habit;  while  in  adolescence  it  can  be  cul- 
tivated through  ideals.  Thus  the  natural  means  of  control  at 
this  period  is  that  body  of  ideals  which  youth  can  be  helped  to 
form;  and  J.  W.  Slaughter  believes  that  "his  great  problem 
and  source  of  perpetual  suffering  is  the  chasm  between  what 
he  is  and  what  he  desires  to  be,"  which  is  doubtless  true  of 
nearly  all  serious  minded  adolescents,  and  suggests  that  they 
really  feel  the  need  of  the  good  offices  of  sympathetic  adults. 

With  regard  to  the  moral  life  in  general  it  may  be  said,  that 
the  chasm  between  what  one  is  and  what  one  desires  to  be  simply 
suggests  the  old  struggle  that  has  always  gone  on  between  the 
forces  of  sin  and  the  forces  of  virtue;  and  this  whole  chapter 
has  been  occupied  with  an  account  of  this  battle  royal  which 
the  adolescent  wages,  a  warfare  that  usually  waxes  hottest 
during  the  middle  teens,  the  time  of  exaggerated  moral  tenden- 


MORAL  ASPECTS 


123 


cies,  the  time  when  the  greatest  number  of  first  crimes  are  com- 
mitted and  the  greatest  number  of  conversions  to  a  religious 
life  occur.  Something  within  continually  insists:  "Choose  ye 
this  day  which  ye  shall  follow,"  and  significant  is  the  choice. 

Practical  considerations  make  it  necessary  to  bear  in  mind 
that  moral  maturity  is  not  only  the  result  frequently  of  a 
struggle,  but  also  the  effect  of  an  evolution.  From  youthful 
impulses  must  be  evolved  character;  from  youthful  passion 
and  enthusiasm  come  the  highest  aspirations  and  the  greatest 
deeds  of  which  human  beings  are  capable.  G.  H.  Lewes  has 
aptly  compared  the  gradual  toning  up  and  harmonizing  of  the 
various  dissonant  elements  of  character  to  the  tuning  of  an 
orchestra.  "The  changes  slowly  determining  the  evolution 
of  character,  when  from  the  lawlessness  of  youth  it  passes  into 
the  clear  stability  of  manhood,  resemble  the  evolutions  of  har- 
mony in  the  tuning  of  an  orchestra,  when  from  stormy  discords, 
wandering  in  pursuit  of  concord,  all  the  instruments  gradually 
subside  into  the  true  key:  round  a  small  center  the  hurrying 
sounds  revolve,  one  by  one  falling  into  that  center,  and  increas- 
ing, at  first  slowly,  and  afterward  with  ever  accelerated  velocity, 
till  victorious  concord  emerges  from  the  tumult." 

It  is  practical  to  remember  that  moral  growth  and  maturity 
of  character,  like  other  progress  in  nature,  come  about  and  are 
conditioned  by  exercise;  this  certainly  means  a  pretty  gener- 
ous, and,  to  some,  alarming,  degree  of  personal  liberty  and  re- 
sponsibility, much  genuine  expressional  activity  along  many 
moral  lines.  Moreover  this  part  of  the  treatment  of  youth 
must  not  be  unduly  delayed:  in  case  of  delay  the  spirited  youth 
will  simply  take  matters  into  his  own  hands  and  break  away; 
or,  as  Dewey  warns  us,  "if  the  germinating  powers  are  not 
used  and  cultivated  at  the  right  moment,  they  tend  to  be  trans- 
itory, to  die  out,  or  to  wane  in  intensity."  However,  in  the 
case  of  the  high-mettled  youth  nature  has  pretty  thoroughly 
guarded  against  moral  powers  being  allowed  to  perish  by  des- 


124  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  ADOLESCENCE 

uetude,  for  he  is  generously  endowed  with  a  desire  to  "eat  of 
the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and  evil."  For  him  danger  lies 
in  the  wrong  use  of  his  moral  powers.  It  would  seem  that  the 
safest  and  most  natural  way  to  exercise  the  youth's  moral  judg- 
ment is  to  make  him  feel  that  he  is  part  of  a  cooperating  group 
and  that  on  him  rests  a  social  responsibility;  his  loyalty  to 
the  group  and  its  purposes  should  both  restrain  and  stimulate 
him;  in  this  way  let  us  hope  that  he  will  learn  the  habits  of 
response  to  social  and  moral  situations.  In  this  manner  we 
cooperate  with  what  Wordsworth  calls  "the  benign  tendencies 
in  human  nature  and  society."  This  phase  of  the  subject 
is  continued  in  the  chapter  on  social  activities,  in  which  an 
effort  is  made  to  show  that  the  school  is  something  more  than 
an  intellectual  workshop. 

In  conclusion,  it  remains  to  say  a  word  concerning  the  per- 
sons best  suited  to  aid  the  adolescent  in  his  efforts  to  learn  how 
to  live,  for  this,  in  brief,  is  all  that  is  meant  by  moral  growth 
and  development.  Youth  is  naturally  suspicious  and  some- 
times scornful  of  the  conservatism  and  inertia  of  older  people; 
hence  only  those  who  remain  youthful  in  spirit  can  hope  to 
influence  greatly  the  boys  and  girls  in  their  teens.  Earl  Barnes 
says:  "The  passing  generation  smiles  and  cracks  its  weather- 
worn jokes  about  youthful  effusions."  The  attitude  that  is 
shown  by  this  kind  of  joking,  which  at  bottom  is  often  an  ex- 
hibition of  impatience,  is  extremely  offensive  to  the  rising  gen- 
eration, and  adults  who  indulge  in  this  kind  of  humor,  are  not 
taken  very  seriously  by  their  youthful  acquaintances;  for  they, 
in  turn,  are  held  in  contempt  by  youth,  who  exclaim,  "O  ye 
of  little  faith!"  It  is  extremely  unfortunate  that  often,  during 
the  period  when  personal  loyalty  is  the  dominating  character- 
istic, neither  a  parent  nor  a  teacher  is  deemed  worthy  to  be 
taken  as  an  ideal  by  the  youthful  hero- worshiper ;  for,  if  there 
is  any  one  influence  that  will  make  the  adolescent's  progress 
safe,  it  is  that  of  a  strong  and  good  personality;  only  "a  true 


MORAL  ASPECTS  125 

knight  of  the  spirit"  can  lead  venturesome  youth  to  moral 
victory.  Some  one  with  strength  of  character  and  convictions 
must  be  at  hand  to  speak  out  in  unmistakable  tones  concern- 
ing the  moral  issues  of  life  (there  must  be  no  preaching) ;  this 
always  requires  judgment  and  sometimes  courage.  Finally, 
and  most  commonplace  of  all,  he  who  would  shape  the  moral 
life  of  any  adolescent  must  embody  the  principles  and  truth 
that  he  would  teach;  Emerson  was  discerning  enough  to  dis- 
cover long  ago  that  the  reason  people  do  not  heed  us  is  that 
"they  see  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  our  eye." 

The  vital  subject  of  rendering  help  to  the  adolescent  in  his 
struggles  toward  higher  moral  living  will  be  continued  in  a 
later  chapter  on  "Moral  Education." 


PART  II  — HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 
CHAPTER  VIII 

TRANSITION  FROM  THE  ELEMENTARY  TO  THE 
SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

The  Junior  High  School 

I 

One  of  the  oldest  and  most  insistent  problems  connected 
with  the  educational  welfare  of  American  children  is  how  suc- 
cessfully to  make  the  transition  from  the  elementary  to  the 
secondary  school.  It  is  a  problem  whose  solution  rests  on  gen- 
eral psychological  and  educational  principles,  but  it  does  not 
readily  lend  itself  to  a  general  solution;  it  must  be  studied  and 
worked  out,  on  the  side  of  organization  at  least,  in  accordance 
with  the  needs  and  conditions  of  each  community.  It  is  at 
this  point  that  our  system  of  public  education  has  been  most 
frequently  and  vigorously  attacked;  and  we  are  well  aware 
that  the  critics,  whether  within  or  without  the  profession^ 
have  found  no  dearth  of  concrete  arguments  with  which  to 
support  their  various  contentions.  The  elementary  and  the 
high  school  each  frequently  blames  the  other,  and  the  recrimin- 
ations have  given  rise  to  more  heat  than  light.  For  many  years 
the  American  high-school  teacher  has  had  to  listen  to  the  charge 
that  less  than  half  the  pupils  who  enter  ever  reach  the  second 
year  of  the  high  school;  and  this  charge  has  naturally  been 
met  by  the  countercharge  that  the  elementary  school  does  not 
properly  prepare  its  pupils  for  high-school  work.  Besides  the 
general  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  puplic  school  system 
at  this  point  of  transition,  there  have  been  scientific  studies 

126 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         127 

which  emphatically  point  to  the  necessity  of  a  more  explicit 
recognition  of  the  interests  and  needs  of  on-coming  adolescence, 
as  well  as,  of  the  social  demands  which  many  pupils  of  this 
period  will  soon  be  obliged  to  face.  On  the  whole,  high-school 
executive  officers  have  come  to  feel  that  the  American  high 
school,  in  spite  of  the  many  evidences  of  faith  which  the  people 
have  shown,  is  somehow  on  trial;  and  those  responsible  for  the 
elementary  schools  are  aware  that  there  is  something  radically 
wrong  with  the  work  of  the  upper  grades. 

For  these  weaknesses  of  which  we  have  so  long  been  conscious 
many  remedies  have  been  tried  both  in  the  upper  grades  and 
in  the  secondary  schools.  But  the  treatment  has  not  effected 
any  real  cure;  alleviation  at  some  points  is  the  most  that  can 
be  claimed  for  the  most  successful  efforts  at  improvement  imder 
the  old  form  of  organization.  These  efforts  to  correct  the  faults 
and  strengthen  the  weak  places  have  taken  shapes  too  nimier- 
ous  to  mention.  On  the  part  of  the  elementary  school,  there 
have  been  the  "enriching"  idea,  the  reducing  of  the  number  of 
grades  from  eight  to  seven,  the  introduction  of  manual  train- 
ing and  branches  of  home  economics,  the  beginning  of  foreign 
languages,  elementary  algebra,  and  concrete  geometry  in  the 
upper  grades,  the  introduction  of  new  courses  in  civics,  organ- 
ization on  departmental  lines,  etc.  On  the  part  of  the  second- 
ary schools,  there  have  been  tried  an  advisory  system  for  first 
year  pupils,  supervised  study  for  the  earlier  years,  general 
science  in  place  of  the  organized  sciences,  the  direct  method  of 
attacking  foreign  languages,  and  the  introduction  of  numerous 
vocational  courses.  But,  viewing  our  educational  system  as 
a  whole,  the  most  optimistic  do  not  claim  any  great  success. 
The  returns  seem  to  indicate  that  the  trouble  is  too  fundamental 
to  be  reached  by  any  or  all  such  remedies  as  these  just  mentioned, 
and  that  no  patching-up  scheme  will  suffice. 

Perhaps  it  is  unreasonable  to  expect  a  great  degree  of  success 
from  a  plan  of  organization  which  came  about  largely  as  a 


128  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

matter  of  accident.  At  present  it  would  seem  that  students 
of  education  do  not  attempt  to  justify  our  8-4  plan  by  the  psy- 
chology of  childhood  and  adolescence,  or  by  a  comparative 
study  of  educational  systems,  or  on  the  ground  of  local  condi- 
tions and  demands.  The  elementary  part  of  our  system,  which 
may  consist  of  seven,  eight,  or  nine  grades,  came  to  this  country 
before  our  present  high  schools  were  developed;  it  was  imported 
from  Europe,  where  it  was  devised  by  the  aristocracy  to  serve 
what  they  thought  to  be  the  needs  of  the  poor  people  and  to 
train  them  humbly  to  serve  and  obey  those  above.  Thus  our 
8-4  arrangement  is  a  historical  accident;  yet,  strange  to  say, 
it  has  now  no  exact  parallel  in  Europe.  Moreover,  it  is  charged 
that  the  elementary  school,  as  it  now  functions,  leads  nowhere; 
it  neither  prepares  its  pupils  for  their  work  in  the  secondary 
school,  nor  is  it  planned  to  fit  them  for  their  part  in  the  world's 
work. 

Instead  of  continuing  this  artificial  and  accidental  arrange- 
ment, which,  it  is  claimed,  has  made  successful  transition  from 
the  elementary  school  to  the  high  school  impossible  for  so  many 
American  youths,  hundreds  of  cities  and  towns  are  reorganizing 
the  curriculums  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades,  and 
introducing  into  the  system  a  new  unit,  which  has  been  most 
commonly  named  the  junior  high  school.  This  form  of  organ- 
ization has  been  recommended  by  nearly  all  the  important 
surveys,  and  everything  indicates  that  it  is  making  a  strong 
appeal  to  many  of  even  the  conservative  educators.  In  an 
address  before  the  National  Education  Association  in  19 16,  the 
late  Dr.  C.  H.  Johnston  said:  "The  junior-high-school  move- 
ment is  sweeping  the  country.  It  marks  a  general  educational 
reawakening,  renaissance,  reconstruction.  This  Association 
has  made  it  first  a  field  of  investigation,  then  a  propaganda  and 
slogan,  now  a  constructive  program  for  development."  What- 
ever may  be  the  outcome,  it  is  certainly,  when  considered 
psychologically,  the  most  radical  and  vital  change  that  has 


TRANSITION  TO  THE   SECONDARY  SCHOOL         129 

been  seriously  proposed  in  this  country;  and  it  would  seem  to 
furnish  a  solution  of  the  troublesome  problem  involved  in  mak- 
ing the  transition  from  the  grades  to  the  high  school;  for  the 
new  plan  proposes  to  "bridge  the  gap"  by  means  of  the  junior 
high  school,  one  of  whose  functions  it  is  to  furnish  a  natural 
and  easy  transition. 

n 

This  opinion  concerning  the  function  of  the  junior  high  school 
will  doubtless  appeal  to  all  who  have  the  point  of  view  set  forth 
in  the  first  part  of  this  book,  a  psychological  viewpoint  which 
will  determine  much  of  the  discussion  that  follows.  In  the 
introductory  chapter  it  was  stated  that  there  are  two  ways  of 
deciding  questions  pertaining  to  either  method  or  curriculum 
content;  namely,  by  consulting  the  nature  and  the  individual 
needs  of  the  pupils,  or,  by  studying  the  social  outlook  and  try- 
ing to  meet  the  needs  of  the  commimity.  Regardless  of  the 
relative  merits  and  claims  of  these  two  criteria,  the  reader  will 
expect  to  find  the  first  adhered  to  throughout  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing chapters,  as  indicated  by  the  title  of  the  book.  To 
those  who  are  imbued  with  the  psychological  method  of  deter- 
mining pedagogical  matters  it  will  at  once  appear  how  com- 
pletely and  how  perfectly  the  6-3-3  P^^-n  of  organizing  the  work 
of  the  pubUc  schools  fits  the  various  epochs  of  childhood  and 
youth. 

According  to  the  new  plan,  the  elementary  school  with  its 
six  grades  practically  parallels  later  childhood  and  preado- 
lescence;  and  the  work  of  this  part  of  the  curriculum,  both 
as  to  content  and  method,  is  well  suited  to  the  nature  and 
needs  of  children  from  six  to  eleven  years  of  age,  and  seems  to 
constitute  a  natural  unit.  As  shown  in  Chapter  II,  this  is 
the  time  and  place  to  master  the  tools  of  education  and  accimi- 
ulate  a  mass  of  fundamental  and  elementary  knowledge  neces- 
sary to  all  the  various  walks  of  life.  It  was  also  shown  that 
by  nature  pupils  during  this  period  readily  submit  to  dogmatic 


130  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

instruction  and  much  drill,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  a 
thorough  grounding  in  the  elements  and  a  secure  fixing  of  the 
habits  of  accuracy  and  rapidity. 

The  next  stage  of  development  in  the  individual,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  third  chapter,  is  early  adolescence,  covering 
indefinitely  the  years  from  twelve  to  fourteen  or  fifteen;  it 
will  be  remembered  that  the  onset  of  adolescence  occurs  about 
a  year  and  a  half  earlier  with  girls  than  boys.  Thus  the  junior 
high  school  proposes  to  take  the  boys  and  girls  when  most  of 
them  are  about  to  enter  the  pubertal  stage  and  try  to  deal  with 
them  as  their  nature  demands  during  this  "first  flush  of  adoles- 
cence," when  their  aptitudes  and  interests,  as  we  have  seen, 
are  changing  and  are  very  different  from  those  of  the  preadoles- 
cent.  The  psychological  view  of  this  matter  demands  that  we 
begin  early  if  we  are  to  influence  the  adolescent  in  a  large  and 
fundamental  way;  and  it  logically  demands  that  we  be  able 
to  recognize  fully  the  great  variety  of  individual  differences,  due 
to  both  nature  and  nurture,  that  at  this  time  become  so  marked, 
the  whole  life  of  the  early  adolescent  and  his  changing  social 
demands  being  summed  up  in  the  phrase  "increasing  variabil- 
ity." This  view  further  demands  that  we  provide  machinery 
sufficiently  elastic  to  meet  the  varying  interests  and  needs  of 
early  adolescence. 

This  is  part  of  the  proposed  program  of  the  junior  high-school. 
Then,  too,  paradoxical  as  it  may  appear,  following  the  last 
statement,  early  adolescence  is  a  time  when  provision  must  be 
made  for  some  sort  of  social  solidarity.  Boys  especially  wish 
to  act  in  unison;  they  now  desire  to  be  one  in  spirit;  they  are 
not  unlike  the  men  of  feudal  times,  who  are  their  prototypes. 

Thus  the  junior  high  school  would  seem  to  rest  on  a  sound 
psychological  basis;  and  its  degree  of  ultimate  success  will 
depend  upon  the  accuracy  with  which  the  educational  experts 
are  able  to  choose  suitable  subject-matter  and  fitting  methods 
for  this  particular  stage  of  development. 


TRANSITION  TO   THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         131 

III 
Although  the  junior  high  school  seems  to  have  suddenly  made 
its  appearance  on  the  educational  horizon,  and  the  movement 
has  been  rapid,  its  history  really  reaches  back  pretty  well 
into  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  As  in 
other  movements,  those  who  have  contributed  to  it  did  so 
often  without  being  aware  as  to  what  would  be  the  ultimate 
outcome  of  their  thinking  and  efforts.  Doctor  Eliot,  when 
president  of  Harvard  University,  prompted  largely  by  his 
desire  to  have  students  ready  for  college  at  an  earlier  age,  be- 
gan before  1890  to  urge  that  secondary  education  should  "dip 
down  "  into  the  last  two  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  Then 
we  find  in  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  that  each  of  the 
sub-committees,  which  were  made  up  of  experts,  asked  that 
work  on  its  particular  branch  be  begun  in  some  simple  form  in 
the  grades,  "or  as  an  alternative,  the  secondary-school  period 
be  made  to  begin  two  years  earlier."  Although  it  was  not 
definitely  recommended,  the  Committee  clearly  had  in  mind  the 
6-6  plan.  During  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  discussions 
on  all  sorts  of  educational  reforms  tending  toward  the  junior 
high  school  became  general  in  educational  literature  and  at 
educational  gatherings.  President  Butler  of  Columbia,  in  1898, 
was  probably  the  first  to  urge  in  this  discussion  a  curriculum 
based  on  the  nature  and  development  of  the  child's  mind.  He 
maintained  definitely  that  a  period  of  six  years  is  sufficient  for 
elementary  education  and  that  the  nature  of  adolescence 
should  determine  secondary  education  both  as  to  the  length 
of  time  and  the  nature  of  the  work  required.  During  the  first 
four  years  of  the  present  century,  probably  all  the  possible 
arguments  both  for  and  against  the  junior  high  school  were 
brought  forward.  Dewey  urged  an  equal  division  of  the  twelve 
school  years,  on  the  ground  that  such  an  arrangement  would 
make  possible  a  closer  relation  with  social  life.  Then  Hanus 
and  Snedden  claimed  for  pupils  in  the  two  upper  grades  the 


132  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

right  to  vocational  training;  and  the  latter  came  out  definitely 
for  differentiated  curriculums  as  a  means  of  enlisting  public  in- 
terest and  meeting  the  needs  of  the  community.  At  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association  in  1905,  E.  W.  Lyttle  urged  that 
"secondary  education  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  elementary 
pupil  has  acquired  the  tools  with  which  he  may  gain  a  higher 
education;"  he  then  believed  that  this  could  best  be  accom- 
plished by  the  6-6  plan;  and  he  definitely  advocated  for  the 
high  school  differentiation  along  the  lines  of  business,  mechan- 
ical arts,  and  the  professions.  In  his  report  to  the  National  Ed- 
ucation Association  three  years  later,  as  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  six-year  courses,  Lyttle  recommended  a  provisional 
curriculum  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  which  called  for 
approximately  seventy  per  cent  required  work  and  the  remain- 
der elective.  An  examination  of  the  junior-high-school  curric- 
ulums now  in  force  shows  about  the  same  division  between 
required  and  elective  subjects. 

Since  about  1909  the  movement  has  passed  out  of  the  stage  of 
reports  and  recommendations,  and  rapid  headway  has  been 
made  throughout  the  country  in  the  establishment  of  junior 
high  schools.  At  the  meeting  of  the  National  Association  in 
191 2,  Francis  of  Los  Angeles  described  the  work  of  his  "inter- 
mediate schools,"  the  name  which  seems  to  be  in  favor  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  Professor  T.  H.  Briggs  of  Columbia,  in  his  chap- 
ters on  Secondary  Education  in  the  Report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  19 14,  states  that  one  hundred 
and  sixty-seven  cities  with  a  population  of  25,000  or  over  then 
had  junior  high  schools,  as  defined  in  his  questionnaire;  and 
since  then  this  form  of  organization  has  increased  still  more 
rapidly.  In  the  school  year  191 7-18,  out  of  the  1165  schools 
in  the  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary 
Schools,  293  secondary  schools,  that  is,  one  fourth  of  the  num- 
ber reporting,  claimed  to  have  some  form  of  junior-high-school 
organization,    and   twenty-five   per   cent   of   these  were   es- 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         133 

tablished  during  the  year  covered  by  the  report.  However, 
this  list  is  somewhat  swollen  by  the  names  of  places  where  the 
junior-high-school  organization  is  certainly  not  complete  ac- 
cording to  the  most  commonly  accepted  definitions.  In  a 
number  of  instances,  the  new  arrangement  seems  to  be  confined 
so  far  to  mere  organization,  the  complete  changes  in  curriculum 
and  method  (which  constitute  the  vital  part  of  the  movement) 
being  expected  later.  Although  suspended  judgment  is  still 
the  only  safe  attitude  to  assume  concerning  the  claims  made  in 
many  places  of  increased  interest  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and 
patrons,  of  gains  in  enrolment,  and  of  success  in  retaining  pu- 
pils longer  in  high  school,  this  sketch  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  junior-high- school  movement  is  the  most  widespread  and 
important  educational  development  that  this  country  has  yet 
experienced;  of  the  final  results  or  of  the  complete  success  it  is 
impossible  to  make  even  a  conservative  prophecy.  Much  will 
depend  upon  the  degree  of  thoroughness  with  which  the  sub- 
ject-matter and  the  method  of  treatment  are  made  to  meet  the 
varying  needs  of  the  pubescent  boys  and  girls  of  the  different 
commimities. 

IV 

This  account  of  the  jimior  high  school  may  gain  somewhat  in 
clearness  and  completeness  if  we  attempt  to  formulate  a  defini- 
tion and  state  its  purpose,  although  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
deal  in  any  formal  way  with  a  concept  so  new,  complex,  and 
rapidly  changing.  (Jlhus  far  it  would  seem  that  the  junior 
high  school  is  an  organization  of  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
grades  into  an  administrative  unit  for  the  purpose  of  furnish- 
ing education  and  training  suitable  to  the  varied  and  changing 
mental  and  social  nature  and  needs  of  early  adolescents  and  at 
the  same  time  meeting  the  vocational  demands  of  the  conmiu- 
nity  by  means  of  partially  differentiated  curriculums.^  This 
statement  implies  a  separate  management  of  the  three  grades 


134  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

concerned  and  a  reorganization  of  the  subject-matter  on  a 
sound  psychological  and  pedagogical  basis.     It  may  also  be 
understood  to  include  an  effort  to  harmonize  the  work  of  the 
school  and  the  social  outlook  of  the  pupils.     We  should  hope, 
too,  that  this  definition  includes  a  homogeneous  atmosphere 
peculiar  to  the  age  and  condition  of  the  pupils  of  the  school. 
It  is  proposed,  also,  to  effect  greater  unification  by  means  of 
some  kind  of  departmental  arrangement,  and  greater  flexibility 
is  gained  by  subject-  rather  than  class-promotion,    (^cording 
[  to  the  conception  set  forth  in  this  definition,  the  junior  high 
school  is  much  more  than  a  mere  scheme  for  ''bridging  the  gap 
between  the  grammar  grades  and  the  high  school,"  as  Stetson 
defines  it,  although  it  is  sincerely  hoped  that  it  will  accomplish 
this;  and  it  certainly  has  a  more  unique  and  independent  func- 
tion to  perform  than  simply  "to  give  the  pupils  an  opportunity 
to  become  familiar  with  secondary-school  organization,  cus- 
toms, and  manners,"  as  Tomlinson  maintains,  although  this 
is  doubtless  a  real  advantage  to  the  pupils.     Finally,  the  defini- 
tion implies  something  more  fundamental  and  vital  than  a 
convenient  arrangement  for  "an  earlier  introduction  of  pre- 
vocational  work  and  of  subjects  usually  taught  in  the  high 
school,"  as  Briggs  defines  the  junior  high  school  in  the  Report 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  in  19 14,  how- 
ever important  both  of  these  objects  may  be.     Six  years  later, 
Briggs  gives  expression  to  a  much  deeper  insight  regarding 
the  junior-high-school  movement;   and  his  form  of  statement 
suggests  the  viewpoint  of  this  discussion.     "In  its  essence," 
he  says,    "  the  junior  high  school  is  a  device  of  democracy 
whereby  nurture  may  cooperate  with  nature  to  secure  the  best 
results  possible  for  each  individual  adolescent  as  well  as  for 
society  at  large." 

From  the  standpoint  of  this  book,  if  the  junior  high  school 
is  not  founded  primarily  on  the  psychology  of  early  adolescence 
as  to  curriculum,  administration,  and  method,  it  forfeits  its 


TRANSITION  TO  THE   SECONDARY  SCHOOL         135 

claim  to  exist  as  a  separate  educational  unit,  for  it  will  not 
have  any  distinct  pedagogical  function.  It  is  only  because  so 
much  work  has  been  done  in  the  field  of  adolescent  psychology 
that  the  evolution  of  a  junior  high  school  on  a  scientific  basis  is 
possible;  and  no  principal,  or  other  school  officer,  should  try 
to  do  constructive  work  for  this  worthy  cause  unless  he  has  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  latest  findings  concerning  adolescent 
nature;  as  Dewey  has  shown,  the  focus  must  always  be  first 
on  the  educand. 

Moreover,  the  aim  or  purpose  of  the  junior  high  school  is 
frequently  stated  in  terms  of  social  and  industrial  efficiency; 
this  would  seem  to  be  jdelding  to  the  immediate  needs  of  the 
community,  a  procedure  that  many  beHeve  may  not  in  all  cases 
be  conducive  to  the  most  complete  development  of  the  individual 
pupils;  but,  when  the  directors  of  the  country's  industrial 
and  economic  activities  are  asked  to  declare  themselves  on  this 
matter,  they  urge  "the  necessity  of  an  education  whose  chief 
purpose  is  to  develop  initiative  and  personal  resources  of  in- 
telligence," as  Dewey  phrases  it.  This,  it  would  appear,  is 
but  another  way  of  saying  that,  if  the  purpose  of  education  at 
this  point  is  to  discover  and  develop  the  strictly  personal  powers 
and  characteristics,  it  can  be  brought  about  with  more  certainty 
by  those  who  best  understand  the  nature  and  aptitudes  of  the 
pupils  and  are  most  alert  in  recognizing  their  many  powers  and 
possibilities  as  fast  as  they  appear;  thus  we  are  brought  back 
again  to  a  knowledge  of  child  and  adolescent  nature  as  the  only 
safe  foundation  upon  which  to  build. 


There  are  indications  that  the  junior  high  school  in  its  present 
stage  of  development  is  in  danger  of  becoming  merely  an  admin- 
istrative device;  if  this  should  happen,  doubtless  our  public 
schools  would  profit  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  matter  of  organi- 
zation; but  the  movement  would  fall  far  short  of  its  possibili- 


136  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

ties.  It  is  especially  to  the  modifications  that  are  urgently- 
needed  in  the  curriculum  and  the  methods  of  presenting  sub- 
ject-matter that  we  are  to  look  for  the  changes  that  are  really 
vital,  because  it  is  here  that  the  peculiar  claims  of  the  pubescent 
group  involved  can  be  fully  met.  Hence  much  of  the  remain- 
der of  this  chapter  will  be  occupied  with  a  discussion  of  the 
curriculum  and  methods. 

Although  the  curriculum  suggested  later  is  the  result  of  the 
most  progressive  thought  and  practice  of  many  leaders  in  this 
movement  throughout  the  country,  there  is  nothing  very  novel 
or  strange  as  it  appears  on  paper.  The  most  radical  differences 
are  to  result  from  a  thorough  overhauling  of  the  subject-con- 
tent; this  is  necessary  to  place  the  work  of  the  school  on  a 
firm  psychological  basis;  this  revision  will  involve  considerable 
elimination  of  non-essentials,  some  condensation,  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  material  of  a  concrete  nature,  and  much  correlation 
with  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  and  the  senior  high 
school.  This  is  a  problem  to  be  worked  out  gradually  by  each 
department  of  instruction.  The  result  should  be  courses  con- 
siderably modified  both  as  to  material  and  organization,  rather 
than  a  curriculum  made  up  largely  of  new  subjects. 

In  the  making  of  a  curriculum  for  the  junior  high  school  there 
are  a  few  guiding  and,  as  it  seems  to  the  author,  fundamental 
propositions  to  be  held  in  mind;  some  of  them  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted are  still  in  dispute,  hence  they  are  not  principles  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term. 

(i)  As  in  other  schools,  the  number  and  nature  of  the  subjects 
placed  in  the  curriculum  must  be  carefully  limited  by  the  size 
of  the  school,  the  number  of  teachers  on  the  staff,  and  the  re- 
sources of  the  supporting  community;  but  the  aim  of  the  junior 
high  school  cannot  be  reached  nor  its  essential  characteristics 
developed  without  an  enriching  of  the  program  of  studies. 

(2)  All  subject-matter  must  be  adaptable  to  the  needs,  in- 
terests, and  aptitudes  of  the  pupils  who  are  entering  and  passing 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         137 

through  early  adolescence.  This  is  a  proposition  easy  of  state- 
ment but  difficult  of  application;  for  it  demands  at  every  point 
a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  adolescent  nature  and  a  sure  feel- 
ing for  the  elements  of  the  subject-matter  that  are  suited  to 
the  purpose  in  hand.  The  proposition  may  be  understood  as 
supplementary  to,  or  helpful  in  the  application  of,  the  one  just 
stated. 

(3)  Nearly  all  the  subjects  placed  in  the  curriculum  should  be 
rich  in  content;  pupils  in  these  grades  are  entering  a  stage  of 
development  when  content  is  much  more  important  than  form. 
The  demands  of  boys  and  girls  of  this  age  for  a  richer  and  more 
vital  content  is  a  natural  expression  of  their  broadening  inter- 
ests. 

(4)  The  curriculum  should  emphasize  "the  systematic  mas- 
tery of  race  experience  as  the  basic  condition  of  human  welfare 
and  human  progress,"  to  use  the  language  of  Dr.  Bagley  in 
his  now  famous  paper  read  before  the  department  of  superin- 
tendents in  19 14.  There  must  be  subjects  that  will  furnish 
"a  common  basis  of  certain  ideas  and  ideals  and  standards 
which  go  a  long  way  toward  insuring  social  solidarity  —  a  basis 
of  common  thought  and  common  aspiration  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  an  effective  democracy."  It  is  not  necessary  to 
remind  readers  familiar  with  educational  discussion  that  this 
proposition  has  been  much  disputed;  it  opens  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  vocational  and  cultural  studies  and  their  place  in  our 
educational  scheme,  a  field  of  discussion  which  cannot  be  en- 
tered at  this  point.  However,  the  present  author  is  convinced 
that  Dr.  Bagley's  claims  are  well  founded  and  can  be  met  by 
making  about  three-fourths  of  the  work  in  the  junior-high-school 
curriculum  required  of  all  pupils.  This  can  be  done  without 
ignoring  the  demands  of  the  second  proposition.  We  must  guard 
in  every  possible  way  against  class  stratification.  Bagley  and 
Judd  have  said  jointly:  "A  school  which  gives  to  one  class  of 
children  one  set  of  ideas  and  ideals,  and  to  another  class  an 


138  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

entirely  different  set  of  ideals,  will  make  for  social  distinctions 
that  are  dangerous  in  a  democracy."  This  proposition  implies 
what  several  recent  writers  have  been  pleased  to  designate  the 
integrating  function  of  education. 

(5)  The  curriculum  must  be  so  arranged  and  administered  as 
to  make  it  possible  for  a  pupil  without  loss  to  change  his  plan 
of  work  if  he  changes  his  purpose.  There  must  always  be  an 
"open  track."  The  pupil  must  at  every  step  be  master  of 
his  own  fate.  From  an  administrative  point  of  view  this  is  not 
always  easy;  but  if  matters  are  not  so  managed,  the  schools  will 
not  be  true  to  American  principles  and  ideals,  which  demand 
that  the  door  of  opportunity  be  always  kept  open. 

(6)  For  many  reasons  the  curriculum  must  provide  for  in- 
dividual differences.  Our  study  of  adolescence  taught  us  that 
individual  variation  is  the  law  of  this  period  of  development, 
and  that  in  all  dealing  with  adolescents  this  is  a  major  consid- 
eration. At  this  time  individuals  differ  increasingly  in  ability, 
interests,  tastes,  and  consequently  in  needs;  all  recent  investi- 
gations are  emphasizing  this  fact;  and  the  curriculum  must 
not  fail  to  recognize  it.  The  pupil  must  be  given  that  educa- 
tion and  training  which  will  most  fully  develop  all  his  particular 
powers;  and  Dr.  Johnston  has  reminded  us  that  "no  common 
elements  can  produce  similar  effects.  Here  it  takes  uncommon 
elements  to  produce  similar  effects."  From  the  viewpoint 
of  this  book,  all  this  is  fundamental;  but  we  reach  the  same 
practical  conclusion  when  we  attempt  to  meet  the  diversified 
demands  and  prepare  for  the  manifold  duties  of  the  democratic 
society  in  which  the  boys  and  girls  are  soon  to  play  their  parts. 
Thus  at  this  point  the  principle  of  individual  development  and 
the  demands  of  social  efficiency  meet;  what  is  well  for  the  in- 
dividual is  also  serviceable  to  the  community.  Hence,  whichever 
criterion  we  use,  curriculum  differentiation  is  a  crucial  issue; 
without  it  the  junior  high  school  will  fail  to  perform  its  most 
important  function. 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         139 

(7)  Although  vocational  needs  are  not  ignored,  strictly  vo- 
cational subjects  should  not  find  a  place  in  the  curriculum.  To 
this  negative  proposition  all  educational  leaders  will  not  assent. 
There  seems  recently  to  have  been  a  growing  demand  that  the 
training  given  by  the  pubUc  schools  shall  be  directly  helpful  in 
the  individual's  struggle  for  a  living;  this  demand  appears  to 
grow  out  of  the  feeling  that  in  the  past  the  cultural  side  of  edu- 
cation has  been  overworked  to  the  neglect  of  the  practical, 
industrial,  and  vocational;  and  in  some  places  the  employers  of 
labor  have  added  their  influence.  But  let  us  beware  of  the 
swing  of  the  pendulum.  It  can  be  shown  that,  when  the  wel- 
fare of  the  individual  and  the  demands  of  the  wider  community 
are  viewed  in  the  long  run,  early  speciaUzation  is  not  only  un- 
pedagogical  but  also  unfortunate.  Bagley  and  Judd,  in  their 
joint  article,  warn  against  the  term  "enrichment"  being  imder- 
stood  to  include  "  a  limited  course  preparing  for  a  trade."  With 
their  joint  authority,  they  contend  that  "to  give  early  a  limited 
occupational  training  will  tend  (i)  to  set  up  class  distinctions, 
and  (2)  to  deprive  large  numbers  of  children  of  the  broad  basis 
of  general  and  liberal  training,  which  is  essential  to  successful 
democracy."  However,  there  can  be  planned  courses  in  the 
practical  arts  that  will  serve  as  a  means  of  general  culture  (us- 
ing the  term  culture  in  the  broader  sense  explained  in  a 
later  chapter)  for  the  motor-minded  pupils;  but  care  must  be 
exercised  that  this  principle  of  selection  of  studies  does  not  de- 
generate, as  one  writer  has  expressed  it,  into  "a  sorting  process 
based  on  social  distinctions."  Then,  too,  early  adolescence  is 
not  the  time  for  any  form  of  intensive  work  in  the  narrow  sense, 
as  has  been  made  clear  in  Part  I;  and,  in  its  practical  workings, 
it  is  opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  "open  track,"  already  formu- 
lated. Whatever  vocational  aspects  they  may  have,  all  the 
courses  must  be  intellectualized  and  permeated  with  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  school,  which  in  the  last  analysis  is  cultural.  How- 
ever, the  junior  high  school  can  always  draw  with  profit  from 


I40  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  vocational  activities  of  the  world  such  materials  and  prob- 
lems as  will  make  the  work  of  the  pupils  more  significant  and 
consequently  more  appealing. 

The  number  and  variety  of  subjects  suitable  to  the  needs  of 
boys  and  girls  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years  of  age  has  now  be- 
come sufficient  to  make  room  for  intelligent  choice;  one  could 
probably  Ust  double  the  number  of  subjects  that  any  pupil 
would  be  able  to  take.  This  wealth  of  appropriate  subject- 
matter  has  come  from  two  sources:  those  responsible  for  the 
elementary  schools  have  been  diligently  organizing  subjects  with 
which  to  enrich  their  program  of  studies;  and  the  high  schools, 
with  a  view  to  vitalizing  and  giving  greater  variety  to  their 
work,  have  been  adding  subjects  so  rapidly  to  their  many  curric- 
ulums  that  subjects  are  crowding  each  other  out.  Thus, 
there  is  sufficient  material  that  has  been  tested  from  which  to 
build  the  junior-high-school  curriculums.  And  recent  expe- 
rience in  this  matter  seems  to  point  clearly  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  is  easier  to  introduce  new  subjects  when  the  6-3-3  plan 
is  in  operation  than  under  the  old  form  of  organization,  the  fact 
being,  as  Briggs  has  called  to  our  attention,  that  only  a  rela- 
tively small  number  of  elementary  schools  have  introduced 
even  one  or  two  of  the  subjects  that  nearly  all  the  junior  high 
schools  are  freely  offering  their  pupils.  The  flexibility  of  the 
new  form  of  organization  lends  probability  to  Snedden's  opin- 
ion that  the  junior  high  school  will  repeat  the  history  of  the 
four-year  high  schools  and  the  colleges,  wherein  the  increasing 
range  of  subjects  has  been  a  continuous  sign  of  vitality. 

Notwithstanding  the  endless  discussions  that  have  been 
running  in  educational  literature  and  the  much  speaking  that 
has  been  indulged  in  at  educational  gatherings  since  before  the 
Committee  of  Fifteen  made  its  report,  and  in  spite  of  the  en- 
riching process  that  has  resulted,  we  know  that  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  pubescent  there  has  been  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  much  dreary  duplication  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         141 

earlier  grades.    The  impatience  of  the  sated  boys  and  girls 
ought  to  suggest  that  something  is  seriously  wrong  with  the 
many  reviews  with  which  the  conscientious  teacher  fills  in  the 
time.     The  text-books  used  in  the  upper  grades  contain  little 
more  than  elaborations  of  the  topics  studied  in  the  lower  grades; 
even  newness  in  the  manner  of  treating  the  topics  is  often  lack- 
ing.    No  great  degree  of  wisdom  is  required  to  see  that,  by 
persisting  in  our  efforts  at  rounding  out  and  completing  the 
pupil's  knowledge  of  the  elementary  subjects,  the  law  of  dimin- 
ishing returns  becomes  operative  with  the  consequent  loss  of 
time  and  energy.     Of  course  all  this  monotonous  repetition  has 
been  planned  in  the  interest  of  thoroughness,  which  is  certainly 
a  virtue,  but  many  of  the  pupils  have  not  been  able  to  get  our 
viewpoint;    to  them  it  has  seemed  a  discouraging  marking  of 
time,  against  which  many  of  them  (especially  the  boys)  have 
rebelled  and  sought  activities  outside  the  schoolroom  in  which 
there  appears  to  be  some  progress  and  hence  some  significance. 
In  spite  of  the  teachings  of  the  psychology  of  adolescence,  we 
in  our  conservatism  have  gone  on  assuming  that  the  boys  and 
girls  who  are  passing  through  early  adolescence,  with  their 
new  outlook  on  life,  will  endure  the  same  deadening  drill  and 
dogmatic  treatment  to  which  the  preadolescent  willingly  and 
profitably  submits;    this  is  especially  true  of  such  subjects  as 
arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geography.    Those  who  believe  in 
the  junior-high-school  movement  say  that  all  this  can  and  must 
be  changed  by  making  the  character  of  the  work  offered  and 
the  method  of  presenting  it  fit  the  stage  of  development  that 
the  pupils  have  reached.    When  we  consider  the  maladjust- 
ments in  the  upper  grades  and  the  alarming  mortality  in  the 
first  year  of  the  high  school,  it  is  not  surprising  that  this  point 
has  been  the  storm  center  of  the  adverse  criticism  directed 
against  the  public  schools  for  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years. 

Besides  being  inspired  by  the  idea  of  thoroughness  for  its 
own  sake,  educators  have  hoped  that  somehow  much  drilling 


142  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

and  repetition  during  the  last  years  of  the  elementary  school 
would  better  prepare  the  pupils  for  their  work  in  the  high  school 
and  thus  reduce  the  number  of  failures,  which  the  teachers  of 
the  grades  have  not  had  reason  to  view  with  pride.  Yet,  not- 
withstanding this  effort,  the  troublesome  and,  to  many  pupils, 
fatal  chasm  between  the  two  schools  remains  unbridged.  As 
some  one  has  suggested,  a  pupil,  on  leaving  the  elementary 
school,  may  well  burn  his  books,  as  he  will  never  need  to  refer 
to  them  again;  he  is  plunged  into  subjects  which  seem  startlingly 
new  and  strange.  Although  ''bridging  the  gap"  is  not  the 
primary  function  of  the  junior  high  school,  as  already  defined, 
it  is  confidently  believed  that  the  new  curriculum  will  so  merge 
the  work  of  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools  that  there  will  be 
no  gap  and  therefore  no  problem  of  bridge-building. 

What,  then,  are  the  new  subjects  to  be  placed  in  the  junior- 
high-school  curriculum?  And  what  changes  of  content  must  be 
made  in  the  old  subjects?  Dr.  C.  H.  Johnston  has  distinguished 
between  the  two  kinds  of  curriculum  making;  one  he  describes 
as  clerical  and  manipulative,  and  the  other  as  characterized 
by  discrimination  based  on  carefully  worked  out  educational 
theory  and  insight  into  the  needs  of  individuals  and  groups. 
Mere  shuffing  of  the  courses  can  give  no  assistance  whatever  in 
solving  this  problem;  it  is  not  a  case  of  revamping;  the  problem 
is  new  and  too  delicate  to  be  dealt  with  in  any  mechanical  way. 
It  is  a  problem,  however,  of  building  much  old  material  into 
an  entirely  new  structure. 

I.  Because  of  its  practical  use,  as  well  as  its  cultural  value, 
all  junior-high-school  curriculums  require  some  kind  of  work  in 
English  throughout  the  three  years.  This  should  include  and 
correlate  all  the  work  in  reading,  literature,  grammar,  composi- 
tion, spelling,  and  penmanship.  If  the  reader  has  in  mind  the 
characteristics  of  early  adolescence,  as  described  in  Part  I,  he 
is  aware  that  there  is  developing  in  the  youth  a  great  eagerness 
for  real  and  intense  expression,  that  in  many  of  his  reactions 


TRANSITION  TO  THE   SECONDARY   SCHOOL         143 

the  motor  elements  are  very  prominent,  and  that  social  instincts 
and  influences  are  beginning  to  play  a  large  part.  This  is  an 
age  when  words  and  forms  of  expression  are  naturally  inter- 
preted in  terms  of  physical  reactions  rather  than  as  images  or 
abstract  ideas.  This  surely  suggests  that  the  curriculum  of  the 
junior  high  school  should  provide  work  in  English  that  deals  with 
inmiediate  situations,  situations  that  are  so  real  and  interesting 
that  the  pupil  feels  the  need  of  expression.  This  means  that 
the  work  must  be  closely  related  to  his  life;  this  may  take  the 
form  of  vocational  activities,  school  interests,  athletic  sports, 
or  "stunts"  of  various  kinds;  that  is,  the  work  must  be  so  man- 
aged that  the  raw  materials  for  training  in  English  expression 
are  the  pupil's  natural  reactions  to  the  situations  in  which  he 
is  placed,  thus  giving  significance  to  the  content  of  his  themes. 
When  adolescent  enthusiasm  growing  out  of  real  situations  is 
so  directed  that  it  seeks  self-expression,  a  real  opportunity  for 
that  expression  must  be  forthcoming;  then  the  skilful  teacher 
will  be  at  hand  ready  to  show  the  pupil  how  the  ordinary  tools 
of  expression  can  all  be  made  to  contribute  to  his  now  urgent 
needs.  These  tools  will  include  clear,  correct  sentences,  words 
that  fit  the  purpose,  correct  spelling  and  neat,  legible  penman- 
ship; all  these  matters  of  form  must  appear  as  means  to  the 
end,  the  end  being  determined  as  far  as  possible  by  the  pupil's 
initiative.  The  course  must  lay  but  little  emphasis  on  the 
finer  techinque;  for  the  wholesome  adolescent  is  impatient  with 
the  finer  distinctions,  which  appear  merely  as  impertinent 
interference  with  the  realization  of  his  purpose.  In  other  words, 
on  the  side  of  form  nothing  beyond  a  fair  degree  of  mastery  of 
the  larger  essentials  should  be  sought,  for  monotony  must  be 
avoided  at  any  cost.  The  materials  included  in  this  course 
should  be  rich  in  content;  that  is,  they  should  contain  ideas 
and  experiences  which  touch  the  active  life  of  the  pupils. 

Remembering  the  imitative  instincts  of  the  period,  there 
should  be  considerable  reading  to  the  pupils  by  a  teacher  who 


144  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

can  do  it  with  a  compelling  charm;  this  is  a  natural  way  of 
impressing  upon  the  pupils  the  real  significance  and  function  of 
good  form.  Because  the  motor  activities  constitute  so  much  of 
life  at  this  time,  there  should  be  much  opportunity  for  oral  ex- 
pression, both  oral  reading  and  oral  composition;  now  is  the 
time  when  youth  wishes  to  do,  to  express;  and  in  this  he  needs 
much  training,  for  his  power  to  appreciate  during  adolescence 
naturally  outruns  his  power  of  expression. 

If  we  are  not  forgetful  of  the  social  instincts  due  at  this  age, 
part  of  the  work  in  English  will  take  such  form  as  to  seek  the 
approval  of  the  group;  this  may  be  done  in  the  classroom,  at 
the  school  assembly,  in  the  school  paper,  at  public  entertain- 
ments, or  in  literary  organizations.  Because  personal  loyalty 
is  the  prominent  will-process  during  early  adolescence,  much  of 
the  English  work  of  the  curriculum  should  be  made  to  appear  as 
follow- the-leader  stunts;  thus  the  teacher  must  be  enthusiastic 
and  competent  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  if  they  are  to  consider 
him  worthy  of  leadership. 

2.  If  the  work  of  the  school  in  English  is  important  on  the 
side  of  form  and  expression,  its  work  in  science  should  be  im- 
portant on  the  side  of  successful  and  purposeful  action;  and  all 
junior-high-school  curriculums  thus  far  proposed  require  some 
form  of  elementary  science.  Psychological  considerations  de- 
mand that  we  make  use  of  the  rapidly  expanding  adolescent 
interests,  especially  the  natural  inquisitiveness  which  sometimes 
amoimts  to  almost  insatiable  curiosity;  this  work  can  be  made 
to  contribute  to  the  future  welfare  and  satisfaction  of  the  in- 
dividual and  aid  in  laying  the  foundation  for  material  progress. 
The  aim  of  the  work,  to  use  the  language  of  Professor  F.  D. 
Barber,  a  recent  writer  on  elementary  science,  should  be  "to 
give,  as  far  as  possible,  a  rational,  orderly,  scientific  understand- 
ing of  the  pupil's  environment  to  the  end  that  he  may,  to  some 
extent,  correctly  interpret  that  environment  and  be  master  of 
it.    It  must  be  justified  by  its  own  intrinsic  value  as  a  training 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOI  145 

for  life's  work."  Incidentally  the  pupil  may  learn  which  of 
the  special  sciences  he  prefers  and  build  a  foundation  for  his 
later  work  in  these  sciences.  The  topics  included  in  this  course 
should  be  drawn  largely  from  the  life  of  the  pupil  and  the  com- 
munity, and  much  of  the  work  should  take  the  form  of  projects. 
Because  the  matters  treated  are  somewhat  familiar  to  the  pupil 
and  often  closely  connected  with  his  experiences,  they  will 
have  real  significance  and  hence  interest  for  him.  The  presen- 
tation must  be  as  concrete  as  possible. 

At  this  age  pupils  are  not  much  interested  in  things  either 
abstract  or  highly  specialized;  they  seek  knowledge  in  broad, 
naturally  connected  masses;  this  means  dealing  with  things 
as  wholes  and  in  the  large.  Incidentally  the  pupil  will,  we  be- 
lieve, come  to  appreciate  scientific  problems  as  such  and  get 
some  notion  of  scientific  method.  In  English  the  rules  and 
forms  of  oral  and  written  expression  are  taught  incidentally 
through  actual  use;  and  in  the  science  work  of  the  junior  high 
school  scientific  principles  and  methods  are  gradually  incul- 
cated through  concrete  experience  and  appUcation;  the  same 
pedagogical  principle  applies  in  both  lines  of  work  and  rests 
upon  the  same  psychological  basis.  In  manual  training  the 
project  method  has  proved  very  successful;  elementary  science 
should  employ  the  same  principle  lq  dealing  with  its  problems. 

The  recent  discussions  setting  forth  the  merits  of  general 
science  have  brought  to  bear  on  the  science  courses  and  the 
teaching  of  elementary  science  much  helpful  adolescent  psychol- 
ogy; and  whatever  the  form  of  organization  that  may  be  given 
to  the  science  work  of  the  junior  high  school,  the  advocates  of 
general  science  have  made  a  real  contribution  by  placing  the 
emphasis  on  the  psychological  aspects  of  the  problem. 

Further,  it  can  be  shown  that  the  content  of  the  science  which 
is  adapted  to  the  interests  and  aptitudes  of  the  pubescent  is 
equally  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  both  the  pupils  who  leave 
school  early  and  those  who  remain  to  complete  a  well-rounded 


146  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

education  in  science:  for  the  first,  it  is  the  most  practical  equip- 
ment  we  can  give  them  both  for  the  uses  of  the  individual 
and  for  the  demands  of  society,  since  the  fundamentals  are 
learned  in  their  proper  setting;  for  the  second  group,  it  has 
opened  up  in  a  broad  way  a  great  and  interesting  field  of  grow- 
ing human  knowledge  and  at  the  same  time  equipped  the  learner 
with  some  simple,  fundamental  principles  of  physics,  chemistry, 
and  biology  for  use  on  the  way.  The  curriculum  may  well 
include  work  in  elementary  physical  science,  geography  on  a 
physical  basis,  elementary  botany  and  zoology. 

3.  For  many  reasons  it  seems  best  to  require  continuous 
work  in  some  form  of  mathematics  throughout  the  junior-high- 
school  curriculum.  In  general,  the  interests  and  needs  of  the 
pupils  will  be  better  met  if  a  wider  range  of  mathematical  facts 
and  principles  is  attempted,  provided  the  practice  given  to 
fix  these  facts  and  principles  is  made  to  touch  life  closely  by 
means  of  much  varied  and  purposeful  experience.  Due  to 
the  careful  scrutiny  that  the  elementary  school  has  been  re- 
ceiving, arithmetic,  as  taught,  has  come  in  for  its  share  of  ad- 
verse criticism,  especially  the  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades.  It  is  demanded  that  many  of  "  the  formal  phases  that 
can  be  justified  only  by  tradition  or  by  belief  in  the  discredited 
doctrine  of  formal  discipline"  be  eliminated,  and  that  the  waste- 
ful, unmotivated  reviews  that  now  consume  so  much  time  and 
energy,  to  the  disgust  of  many  of  the  pupils,  be  stopped.  How- 
ever, the  mathematics  of  the  junior  high  school  should  include 
considerable  arithmetic,  because  it  can  readily  be  related  to 
the  pupil's  immediate  interests  and  his  efficiency  in  calculation 
must  be  maintained;  but,  like  the  work  in  Enghsh  and  science, 
it  must  be  vitalized  by  a  closer  correlation  with  the  social  and 
economic  conditions  which  surround  him  and  especially  with 
the  pupil's  work  in  elementary  science,  mechanical  and  com- 
mercial subjects,  and  industrial  art.  The  choice  and  arrange- 
ment of  material  and  the  methods  of  presentation  are  not  to 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         147 

be  determined  solely  by  "the  logical  requirements  of  mathe- 
matics" but  by  the  viewpoint  of  the  pupil  and  his  occupational 
and  social  needs.  This  means  that  manipulation  as  an  end 
finds  no  place.  The  mechanical  phases  of  the  work  will  be 
emphasized  only  when  needed  to  understand  and  fix  mathe- 
matical principles. 

The  most  advanced  doctrine  relative  to  junior-high-school 
mathematics  calls  for  the  following:  only  "the  necessary  social 
and  economic  uses  of  arithmetic,  intuitive  geometry,  a  few  peda- 
gogically  selected  topics  in  algebra,  and  numerical  trigonometry." 
These  are  not  taught  tandem,  and  there  is  to  be  little  emphasis 
upon  the  old-time  divisions  of  mathematics.  Schroeder  and 
Clark  demand  that  the  topics  be  introduced  "in  such  a  way  as 
to  insure  a  maximum  of  direct  and  intense  application,  flexibil- 
ity, and  significant  interrelation;"  "the  imity  of  space  and 
number"  must  persist  throughout.  The  material  is  to  be 
socialized  "through  a  series  of  activities,  projects  or  problems 
requiring  cooperation  and  sharing  of  interest,  efforts,  and 
results."  The  content  and  method  are  to  be  determined  largely 
by  considering  the  pupils'  present  interests  and  needs,  rather 
than  with  a  view  to  preparing  him  for  subsequent  courses  in 
mathematics.  However,  the  pupil  must  not  emerge  without 
some  degree  of  skill  in  the  use  of  the  commonly  accepted  mathe- 
matical tools,  and  he  must  possess  certain  important  mathe- 
matical habits  and  ideals.  All  must  be  planned  as  though  the 
pupil's  acquisition  of  mathematical  knowledge  and  formal 
training  were  to  end  with  the  junior  high  school,  the  thought 
being  that  all  subsequent  work  in  mathematics  will  be  elec- 
tive. 

Although  all  this  and  more  is  suggested  by  the  practice  and 
experience  of  European  schools  and  probably  meets  the  approval 
of  the  National  Committee  on  Mathematic  Requirements,  the 
conservative  reader  will  pause  and  consider  while  he  allows 
others  to  do  the  experimenting.    However,  the  skilful  teacher 


148  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

of  arithmetic  will  make  use  of  the  simple  equation  and  the  un- 
known quantity  when  these  will  render  aid  in  solving  simple 
problems.  The  work  in  mensuration  naturally  leads  the  teacher 
to  use  intuitive  and  constructive  geometry;  and,  since  this 
work  in  geometry  is  so  concrete,  it  is  intensely  interesting  at 
this  time.  The  work  in  constructive  geometry  leads  by  easy 
steps  to  many  formal  proofs. 

If  the  work  in  algebra  is  done  in  the  second  year,  it  should 
concentrate  on  a  few  topics,  such  as,  the  use  of  the  formula,  the 
simple  equation,  the  graph  in  its  simplest  applications,  and 
negative  number.  Nearly  all  of  the  mechanical  phases  of  al- 
gebra can  be  easily  taught  in  the  second  year  of  the  junior  high 
school;  and  the  application  of  the  equation  to  type  problems 
is  not  beyond  the  ability  of  pupils  of  this  age.  The  mathema- 
tics of  the  third  year  should  include  all  the  algebra  that  is  re- 
quired. The  work  of  the  junior  high  school  should  call  for 
the  exercise  of  common  sense  in  computing  with  approximate 
data;  the  pupils  are  old  enough  to  enjoy  and  profit  by  this 
form  of  exercise.  If  the  more  technical  forms  of  business 
arithmetic,  such  as,  stocks,  bonds,  and  insurance,  are  taught, 
they  should  come  late  in  the  course,  as  they  require  consider- 
able maturity  of  mind  and  greater  mathematical  knowledge. 

The  work  here  indicated  can  be  made  a  somewhat  closely 
correlated  course,  for  much  of  which  carefully  worked-out  texts 
can  be  had;  or  the  proposed  work  of  the  various  branches  may 
be  given  tandem  instead  of  parallel.  The  author  has  experi- 
mented with  both  plans,  but  is  not  ready  to  decide  between 
them;  both  have  advantages  and  both  have  disadvantages  too 
numerous  to  discuss  here.  Whatever  the  content  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  courses  in  junior-high-school  mathematics,  the 
aim  should  be,  as  Prof.  E.  H.  Taylor  of  the  Eastern  Illinois 
State  Normal  expresses  it,  "  to  make  the  study  of  mathematics 
less  formal,  and  make  it  more  intuitive,  concrete,  and  prac- 
tical; and  to  give  to  the  instruction  more  unity."    As  he  sug- 


TRANSITION  TO  THE   SECONDARY  SCHOOL         149 

gests,  the  organization  of  the  junior  high  school  offers  an  ex- 
cellent opportunity  to  put  this  unifying  idea  into  practice,  and 
thus  return  to  some  of  the  recommendations  of  the  Committees 
of  Ten  and  Fifteen. 

4.  History  and  civics,  when  properly  taught,  help  the  pupil 
to  interpret  his  immediate  social  and  political  world  and  hence 
to  act  more  intelligently  and  effectively  in  all  his  relations  with 
this  complex  world.  This  is  the  justification  of  requiring  all 
pupils  in  the  junior  high  school  to  pursue  courses  in  United 
States  history,  local  and  elementary  civics.  The  other  benefits 
of  a  more  general  nature  in  the  guise  of  mental  training,  that 
are  usually  claimed  for  the  study  of  history,  will  come  as  by- 
products, but  they  are  not  the  less  valuable. 

The  budding  social  instincts  of  early  adolescence  prompt 
the  boys  and  girls  to  begin  to  be  interested  in  their  immediate 
social  surroundings;  hence  the  following  statements  of  A.  A. 
Douglas  concerning  method  and  content  are  in  keeping  with 
the  psychology  of  the  period.  He  advocates  that  we  "begin 
with  the  study  of  the  civic  and  economic  problems  in  the  im- 
mediate environment,  and  follow  these  as  they  lead  outside 
the  home  and  the  school  to  the  city  or  community,  state,  and 
nation,"  the  "social  factors  affecting  the  life  of  the  child"  re- 
ceiving the  first  attention.  "  Such  topics  as  community  health, 
industrial  conditions,  public  recreation,  city  government,  etc.," 
are  suitable  for  all;  and  he  insists  "that  the  pupil  be  brought 
into  actual  contact  with  the  problems  he  is  studying."  Again 
we  meet  the  doctrine  of  the  concrete  and  the  tangible. 

Moreover,  the  history  taught,  as  Tryon  affirms,  "will  be 
planned  for  the  sake  of  the  pupils  taking  it,  rather  than  for 
the  sake  of  the  subject."  This  means  that  the  history  of  the 
junior  high  school  "must  be  made  to  function  in  the  form  of  a 
key  to  a  right  understanding  of  present-day  conditions."  It 
should  serve  as  a  background  for  the  things  that  are  happening 
in  the  inamediate  present,  and,  like  the  work  iu  science,  aid  the 


I50  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

pupils  in  making  effective  connections  with  their  surroundings, 
the  one  helping  them  to  fit  into  their  physical,  the  other,  their 
social  environment. 

So  far  as  the  students  of  this  matter  are  able  to  learn  through 
questionnaires  and  other  sources,  the  program  here  proposed 
will  mean  in  many  school  systems  a  radical  transformation  of 
method  and  subject-matter.  The  work  here  recommended 
should  continue  through  the  first  two  years.  Ancient  history 
is  well  suited  to  the  pupils  of  the  third  year,  as  experience  in 
many  schools  has  shown;  it  is  interesting  at  this  age  because 
of  the  material  with  which  it  deals  and  it  opens  up  a  new  field 
for  those  who  leave  school  when  the  work  of  the  junior  high 
school  is  finished;  and  it  is  the  beginning  of  a  new  cycle  for 
those  who  continue  their  history  work  in  the  senior  high  school. 

5.  Because  of  its  universal  appeal  and  because  the  schools 
should  train  the  individual  for  the  proper  and  safe  enjoyment 
of  his  times  of  leisure,  some  work  in  music  and  art,  suited  to 
the  age  and  interests  of  the  pupils,  should  be  required  of  all. 
There  should  also  be  a  carefully  worked-out  course  in  physical 
training  extending  through  the  three  years;  this  should  include 
everything  which  has  been  found  to  contribute  to  health  and 
the  up-building  of  a  strong  and  efficient  body.  For  this  claim 
arguments  are  not  needed. 

The  required  subjects  here  suggested  will  provide  for  what 
Dr.  Bagley  chooses  to  name  general  education,  having  for  its 
content  the  "materials  and  processes  which  will  be  Of  probable 
value  to  every  individual  whatever  his  specific  occupation  or 
mode  of  life  may  be.'*  These  studies  are  to  aid  the  youth  in 
taking  possession  of  the  inherited  "race  experiences,"  which 
form  "  the  basic  condition  of  human  welfare  and  human  prog- 
ress," a  rich  inheritance  of  which  no  one  must  be  deprived; 
it  should  constitute  the  educational  background  of  our  demo- 
cracy. 

What  subjects  are  to  be  elective?    The  answer  to  this  ques- 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         151 

lion  involves  some  things  that  are  new  to  the  grades  under 
consideration,  at  least  so  far  as  applies  to  most  school  systems. 
When  the  content  and  presentation  are  adapted  to  the  age  and 
development  of  the  pupils,  there  are  many  and  strong  arguments 
for  the  following:  Foreign  languages,  including  Latin,  French, 
and  Spanish;  subjects  that  contribute  toward  a  business  train- 
ing, including  business  English,  commercial  paper,  business 
methods,  elementary  bookkeeping,  and  typewriting;  manual 
training,  with  most  of  the  time  given  to  bench  work;  practical 
cooking  and  sewing,  household  management,  and  food  preser- 
vation; and  agriculture,  taught  as  concretely  as  conditions 
will  permit.  Not  many  jimior  high  schools  will  find  it  best  to 
offer  all  of  these  electives;  local  demands,  equipment,  and  the 
resources  of  the  community  must  determine.  Although  imlike 
the  program  of  studies  of  any  particular  school,  the  foregoing 
is  submitted  as  being  typical  of  the  most  progressive  curriculum 
making  thus  far  undertaken. 

The  question  remains  as  to  what  form  this  proposed  program 
of  studies  shall  take.  Shall  we  arrange  the  subjects  for  each 
of  the  three  years  in  two  groups,  making  one  group  "required" 
and  the  other  "elective;"  or  shall  we  build  from  the  subjects 
suggested  distinct  curriculums  such  as  are  urged  in  a  later  chap- 
ter on  the  curriculum,  the  number  and  nature  depending  on 
the  size  of  the  school  and  the  needs  of  the  commimity?  In  the 
junior  high  school  this  would  seem  to  be  largely  a  matter  of 
administration;  the  outcome  for  the  individual  pupil  will  be 
about  the  same,  provided  the  suggested  seventy  per  cent  of  the 
work  is  taken  from  the  required  group  of  subjects  which  fur- 
nishes the  basis  for  a  general  education.  Some  writers  and  a 
few  administrators  claim  that  this  leads  to  a  little  more  flexibil- 
ity in  management  than  the  curriculum  system,  a  quality  to 
be  sought  by  every  practical  means.  In  case  the  curriculum 
method  of  combining  subjects  is  used,  it  is  suggested  that  at 
least  five  separate  groups  may  be  offered  and  designated  as, 


152  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

Business,  Home  Making,  Mechanical,  Agricultural,  and  For- 
eign Language.  It  will  be  understood  that  everything  that 
has  been  said  concerning  the  junior-high-school  curriculum  is 
tentative  in  the  extreme;  the  whole  field  is  rapidly  changing, 
and  the  entire  subject  is  in  a  formative  condition. 

VI 

Appropriate  methods  of  dealing  with  early  adolescent  boys 
and  girls  have  been  touched  upon  incidentally  in  our  discussion 
of  the  curriculum.  Since  the  major  argument  for  the  junior 
high  school  is  that  it  makes  easier  the  introduction  of  various 
improvements  in  method,  any  account  of  the  movement  that 
did  not  attempt  to  point  out  pretty  definitely  some  of  the  pro- 
posed reforms  would  be  very  incomplete.  A  few  writers 
recommend  "  a  wise  compromise "  between  the  methods  of 
the  lower  grades  and  those  of  the  high  school ;  but  this  is  too 
indefinite  to  be  of  service,  and  it  is  not  psychologically  sound 
advice.  To  the  author  improvement  in  method  seems  by  far 
the  most  vital  change  that  this  new  form  of  organization 
makes  possible,  for  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  psychology  of 
adolescence  and  the  newer  principles  of  sociology  can  be  most 
directly  and  intimately  brought  to  bear.  Unless  those  re- 
sponsible for  the  junior  high  school  are  earnestly  to  set  about 
applying  all  that  is  latest  and  best  in  the  studies  of  the 
leaders  of  educational  thought,  it  would  be  better  to  retam 
for  a  while  at  least  the  older  form  of  organization,  as  some- 
thing established  and  therefore  more  convenient. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  our  study  of  preadolescence  led  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  business  of  the  elementary  school  is 
to  give  the  pupil  control  of  the  educational  tools,  that  instruc- 
tion may  profitably  be  quite  dogmatic,  that  children  of  this 
age  readily  submit  to  the  necessary  drill  and  the  habit-forming 
processes,  that  their  instincts  and  impulses  must  be  organized 
along  practical  and  effective  lines,  that  vast  stores  of  useful 


TRANSITION  TO  THE   SECONDARY  SCHOOL         153 

information  may  easily  be  accumulated,  that  the  motor  centers 
should  be  trained  and  developed,  and  that,  because  this  is 
the  time  when  the  individual  is  entering  into  his  common  racial 
inheritance,  there  are  many  common  tendencies  and  charac- 
teristics to  which  the  school  may  effectively  appeal.  But  all 
this  pedagogy  of  preadolescence  must  be  gradually  given  up  in 
the  junior  high  school,  because  of  the  vital  changes  that  are 
taking  place  in  the  pupils,  changes  involving  many  new  in- 
terests and  demands.  Most  of  the  failure  charged  against  the 
upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  has  come  from  the  rigid- 
ity of  method  which  did  not  recognize  the  changing  interests 
and  needs  of  the  pupils.  As  we  have  seen  in  the  earlier  part  of 
this  book,  new  cell  connections  are  now  being  made  in  the  brain 
and  these  form  the  physical  basis  of  the  associations  that  are 
now  being  established,  which  largely  determine  the  character 
of  the  individual.  Individual  inheritances  are  now  being  differ- 
entiated, as  shown  by  the  appearance  of  special  abilities;  and 
it  is  very  important  for  the  development  and  welfare  of  youth 
that  these  new  variations  be  discovered  when  they  emerge 
and  that  they  be  dealt  with  according  to  their  nature.  This 
clearly  suggests  that  the  methods  employed  at  this  time  must  be 
much  more  flexible,  readily  adjustable  to  the  individual  de- 
mands of  the  varying  personalities  that  are  now  forming.  The 
personal  equation  is  now  beginning  to  play  so  important  a  r61e 
that  it  cannot  safely  be  ignored;  all  boys  and  girls  at  this  time 
are  exceptional  and  no  stereotyped  method  will  deal  effectively 
with  their  changing  and  var)dng  powers. 

In  place  of  the  early  dogmatic  methods,  there  must  be  a 
more  frequent  appeal  to  reason,  which  is  now  developing; 
facts  must  be  presented  in  their  natural  and  true  relations  to 
each  other  and  their  essential  relations  to  life.  The  pupil's  own 
individual  thinking  and  opinions  should  begin  to  have  recog- 
nition in  the  work  of  the  classroom;  this  means  an  increasing 
freedom  in  discussion.    This  is  the  most  practical  way  to  make 


154  fflGH-SCHCK)L  PROBLEMS 

sure  that  the  mstruction  is  significant  to  the  pupils;  and,  be- 
cause it  has  not  been  more  significant,  especially  to  the  larger 
boys  of  the  upper  grades,  they  have  become  restless  and  often 
disgusted,  and  they  have  naturally  transferred  their  efforts 
to  other  activities  that  to  them  seem  to  have  more  meaning 
and  are  consequently  more  interesting.  The  Gary  system  has 
been  successful  in  reducing  eliminations  because  it  has  made 
instruction  significant  to  the  pupils;  there  one  may  find  the 
educational  principles  and  the  spirit  needed  in  the  junior  high 
school,  although  Gary  does  not  have  that  form  of  organization. 

Again,  the  nature  of  early  adolescence  demands  that  the 
subjects  of  the  curriculum  be  given  extensive,  as  distinguished 
from  intensive,  treatment.  Youth  prefers  to  deal  with  rather 
large  masses  of  knowledge;  and  there  must  always  be  move- 
ment if  there  is  not  to  be  monotony.  This  method  of  treat- 
ment is,  not  only  suited  to  the  broadening  interests  of  the  pupils 
at  this  stage  of  development,  but  is  best  from  the  standpoint 
of  their  future  educational  welfare;  for,  whether  they  leave 
school  early,  or  continue  through  the  senior  high  school  and 
college,  it  is  psychologically  right  and  helpful  to  get  a  bird's- 
eye  view  of  the  fields  of  human  knowledge  and  see  things  in 
their  large  relations.  This  is  the  natural  way  to  learn  to  dis- 
criminate relative  values,  and,  as  we  have  learned,  the  adoles- 
cent needs  much  help  in  the  building  up  of  his  mental  perspec- 
tive. 

Once  more,  if  we  are  mindful  of  the  independent  personalities 
that  are  now  appearing,  there  will  be  a  gradual  increase  in  the 
degree  of  responsibility  placed  upon  the  pupils.  This  is  to 
the  pupils  a  welcome  change,  because  it  is  a  recognition  of  their 
individual  importance;  and  their  instinctive  desire  for  appro- 
bation tends  to  make  them  measure  up  to  what  is  expected  of 
them.  This  law  of  human  nature  is  one  that  should  now  rapidly 
become  operative.  The  form  of  organization  of  the  junior 
high  school,  which  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  similar  to  the  usual 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         155 

hi^-school  organization,  readily  lends  itself  to  the  placing  of 
more  responsibility  in  the  matter  of  conduct;  this  naturally 
calls  for  more  self-control,  a  factor  in  human  development 
of  the  greatest  importance.  Thus  we  have  provided  a  natural 
transition  from  the  elementary  school  to  the  higher  schools. 

In  connection  with  our  account  of  the  curriculum,  it  was 
frequently  suggested  that  the  method  of  presentation  should 
be  concrete  whenever  practical;  this  is  pedagogical,  because  the 
pupils  with  whom  we  are  dealing  are  still  interested  in  things 
and  movements,  rather  than  abstract  motives  and  principles. 
Abstract  ideas  must  be  built  up  largely  by  contact  and  expe- 
rience with  the  things  of  which  these  ideas  represent  the  quali- 
ties, and  the  fundamental  principles  which  we  wish  pupils  to 
learn  can  best  be  obtained  in  their  concrete  setting.  It  is 
this  phase  of  educational  reform  that  several  writers  of  recent 
text-books  have  had  in  view  when  developing  the  "project 
method"  in  connection  with  manual  training,  economics, 
agriculture,  and  elementary  science.  The  older  writers  would 
call  this  the  inductive  method  of  approach;  but  it  is  more  than 
the  older  school  had  in  mind  or  ever  put  in  practice.  The  newer 
theory  demands  that  larger  imits  be  dealt  with,  and  that  we 
seek  the  rules  and  principles  as  they  are  found  operative  in  the 
outside  world,  rather  than  in  the  experiments  of  the  shop  and 
laboratory;  it  assumes  that  the  range  of  experience  is  not  ex- 
hausted by  the  old-time  studies  and  the  stock  experiments 
of  the  schools.  There  is  little  doubt  that  this  new  mode  of 
approach  gives  greater  pleasure  to  the  pupil;  this  is  what  Bag- 
ley  and  Judd  mean  when  they  say,  "it  is  just  at  this  point  in 
the  school  that  the  pupil,  made  acquainted  with  the  fundamen- 
tal tools  of  experience  in  the  lower  grades,  finds  himself  enter- 
ing productively  into  the  enjoyment  of  his  achievements." 

What  is  here  urged  concerning  the  methods  of  the  junior 
high  school  can  be  summed  up  by  saying,  the  one  great  aim  is 
the  conservation  of  the  enthusiasm  natural  to  youth;  this  en- 


156  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

thusiasm  is  vital  to  his  wholesome  psychic  life  and  hence  to 
his  development.  Monotony  at  any  time  is  objectionable, 
but  in  dealing  with  pubescent  boys  and  girls  it  is  a  cardinal 
educational  sin.  Much  of  the  misconduct  of  the  early  adoles- 
cent, including  his  disgust  for  and  his  rebellion  against  the  work 
and  regulations  of  the  schools,  is  a  kind  of  reflexive  resistance 
to  the  monotonous  and  hence  hateful  conditions;  in  his  vernac- 
ular, there  is  "not  enough  doing."  Or,  we  can  sum  up  by  say- 
ing, the  enthusiasm  natural  to  youth  will  be  conserved  when 
the  content  and  methods  of  the  school  work,  including  all  the 
activities,  are  made  to  conform  to  the  particular  stage  of  devel- 
opment that  the  pupils  of  the  junior  high  school  have  reached. 

vn 

For  a  few  years  there  will  doubtless  be  considerable  difficulty 
in  securing  enough  well  qualified  teachers  if  the  junior  high 
schools  increase  in  number  as  rapidly  as  they  did  during  the 
first  five  years  of  the  movement.  Because  of  the  more  compli- 
cated form  of  organization  made  necessary  by  the  junior  high 
school,  there  will  come  increased  responsibilities  and  difficulties 
in  administration  and  discipline,  and  these  must  be  shared  by 
the  teachers;  more  ability  to  cooperate  will  be  demanded  than 
is  required  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  teachers  under  the  older 
form  of  organization.  A  broader  educational  outlook  will  be 
demanded  as  part  of  the  teacher's  equipment.  But  the  impor- 
tant requisite  to  insist  upon  at  the  start  is  that  the  teachers  shall 
have  clearly  in  mind  the  junior-high-school  idea  or  viewpoint 
and  are  enthusiastic  concerning  the  movement.  Since  the 
pupils  of  this  school  are  about  to  enter  the  estate  of  manhood 
and  womanhood,  it  would  be  a  real  advantage  to  have  the  teach- 
ing staff  equally  divided  between  men  and  women;  but  this 
is  not  generally  true  in  the  senior  high  school  and  will  probably 
not  be  practical  for  some  time  in  the  junior  high  school.  A 
study  of  the  matter  by  A.  J.  Jones  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         157 

vania  has  convinced  him  that  there  is  on  the  part  of  school 
officials  a  "general  insistence  upon  a  knowledge  of  children 
and  sympathy  with  them;"  this  is  certainly  of  prime  impor- 
tance. Practical  courses  in  preadolescence  and  early  adoles- 
cence should  aid  much  in  giving  teachers  a  working  knowledge  of 
the  periods  of  development  involved  and  contribute  toward  a 
pedagogical  appreciation  of  the  subject-matter  dealt  with. 

At  the  beginning  superintendents  wisely  selected  their 
junior-high-school  teachers  from  the  upper  grades  of  the  ele- 
mentary school  who  seemed  best  qualified  for  the  new  work 
and  high-school  teachers  who  had  had  experience  in  the  grades. 
This  is  the  best  that  can  be  done  until  specially  trained  teach- 
ers can  be  obtained  and  there  probably  will  soon  be  enough 
trained  teachers  for  this  work  if  the  junior-high-school  move- 
ment continues;  for  in  all  fields  of  activity  a  demand  usually 
creates  a  supply.  Already  educational  experts  in  many  col- 
leges and  normal  schools  are  offering  courses  in  junior-high- 
school  problems.  A  terminology  of  the  subject  has  been  devel- 
oped; and  a  voluminous  literature  is  rapidly  making  its  appear- 
ance- In  some  parts  of  the  country  definite  standards  have 
been  set.  In  California  a  holder  of  a  normal  school  diploma 
with  one  year  of  college  training  or  a  holder  of  an  elementary 
certificate  with  two  years  of  college  training  may  be  granted 
a  permit  to  teach  in  the  junior  high  schools,  there  called  "inter- 
mediate schools."  In  Hannibal,  Missouri,  the  requirement  is 
"not  less  than  two  years  of  student  work  of  college  grade  pur- 
sued under  conditions  where  the  professional  phase  of  teaching 
is  predominant,"  as  well  as  successful  experience  in  dealing 
with  pupils  of  adolescent  age.  Professor  Cubberley,  in  his  re- 
port of  the  Portland  survey,  recommends  the  following  mini- 
mum requirement:  "(i)  graduation  from  a  four-year  high 
school;  graduation  from  a  standard  normal  school;  one  year 
of  actual  experience  in  teaching;  followed  by  at  least  two  years 
of  college  work,  with  preparation  for  special  branches  to  be 


158  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

taught,  or,  still  better,  (2)  college  graduation,  with  practice 
teaching  experience;  or  (3)  the  promotion  of  eminently  success- 
ful teachers  within  the  system,  favoring  those,  other  things 
being  equal,  who  have  had  a  year  or  two  of  college  work  or 
who  have  travelled  abroad."  At  its  meeting  in  1918,  the  North 
Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  recom- 
mended, "  that  the  standard  of  preparation  for  the  teachers 
of  the  ninth  grade  of  the  junior  high  school  be  the  same  as 
the  standard  now  administered  for  secondary  teachers  by  the 
North  Central  Association,"  and  that  ''an  equally  high  stand- 
ard of  preparation  for  the  teacher  for  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  the  junior  high  school  should  be  insisted  upon  as  soon 
as  practicable." 

This  fixing  of  standards  and  training  of  teachers  will  soon 
overcome  the  initial  difl&culty  here  under  discussion.  In  sup- 
port of  the  high  standards  that  are  being  advocated,  the  Fif- 
teenth Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education  quotes  the  opinions  of  about  twenty-five  superin- 
tendents and  other  school  authorities  concerning  the  training 
necessary  for  the  junior-high-school  teacher,  and  a  large  num- 
ber favor  normal  school  training  with  a  year  or  two  of  college 
work  in  the  teacher's  special  subject;  and  the  teacher  for 
"this  most  trying  stage  of  common-school  education,"  as  Pro- 
fessor H.  A.  Hollister  characterizes  it,  should  have  experience; 
teachers  can  more  safely  experiment  in  the  senior  high  school 
with  pupils  of  middle  adolescence  than  with  the  pubescents  of 
the  junior  high  school.  To  the  author  it  seems  that  the  most 
valuable  experience  preparatory  to  this  work  can  be  had  in 
the  elementary  school;  a  teacher  with  sufficient  educational 
background,  who  has  just  had  a  year  or  two  of  successful  upper 
grade  experience,  will  enter  upon  the  duties  of  the  junior  high 
school  with  the  enthusiasm  natural  to  one  who  feels  the  stimulus 
of  a  well-earned  promotion. 

In  general,  we  may  be  pretty  sure  that  the  final  outcome  will 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         1 59 

be  the  bringing  into  the  public  school  system  more  good  teachers. 
The  difficulties  that  have  always  been  experienced  in  securing  a 
sufficient  number  of  suitable  teachers  for  the  upper  grades  will 
be  largely  overcome  by  the  attractiveness  of  the  junior-high- 
school  positions;  and  it  is  beheved  that  the  principalships  of 
these  schools  will  be  likely  to  attract  good  men,  whose  in- 
fluence will  thus  earlier  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  boys  of  the 
community. 

vni 

Professor  A.  J.  Jones  reminds  us  that  nearly  all  the  reforms 
in  American  education  have  been  concerned  with  changes  within 
the  system;  but  that  "within  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  criti- 
cisms have  been  pointing  more  and  more  toward  the  organi- 
zation;" there  is  a  growing  conviction  that  internal  reforms 
will  not  prove  sufficient,  but  that  radical  changes  in  the  organi- 
zation itself  must  be  effected  if  far-reaching  improvements  are 
to  result.  Whatever  may  be  the  importance  of  the  new  arrange- 
ment as  such,  the  most  apparent  and  common  change  brought 
about  by  the  junior  high  school  has  been  in  matters  of  organi- 
zation and  administration.  In  fact,  the  study  of  the  junior 
high  schools  in  the  territory  of  the  North  Central  Association 
of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  made  by  C.  0.  Davis  of 
Ann  Arbor  leads  him  to  conclude  that  "in  scores  of  cases"  the 
alleged  reforms  have  consisted  of  a  change  of  name  and  the 
introduction  of  a  few  alterations  in  the  organization,  rather 
than  vital  changes  in  purpose,  studies,  spirit,  methods,  and  in- 
ternal administration;  he  believes  that  fully  one  third  of  the 
293  schools  reported  as  junior  high  schools  are  a  long  way  from 
really  being  such. 

What  are  the  new  features  in  organization  that  are  charac- 
teristic of  a  typical  junior  high  school?  Without  doubt  the 
departmental  plan,  which  has  already  proved  its  advantages 
in  many  places,  will  prevail.  The  practice  of  the  regular  high 
school  in  promoting  by  subjects,  rather  than  by  grades,  has  now 


l6o  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

generally  been  transferred  to  the  existing  junior  high  schools, 
lending  greater  flexibility  and  doing  away  with  the  rigid  and 
frequently  discouraging  usage  of  the  elementary  schools. 
There  must  of  necessity  be  a  certain  amount  of  classification 
and  grouping;  but  the  groups  must  not  be  rigid.  As  Dr. 
Johnston  has  said,  "We  must  not  allow  the  school  to  become  a 
Procrustean  bedstead."  Children  of  this  age  sometimes  differ 
fifteen  inches  in  height,  and  there  is  no  reason  for  thinking  that 
they  are  any  more  alike  in  their  social  and  mental  traits. 

The  discipline  of  the  school  can  easily  and  profitably  be  made 
transitional  between  the  elementary  and  high  schools;  it  must 
be  adjusted  to  early  adolescents,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
giving  greater  freedom  and  imposing  more  responsibility. 

It  will  not  be  found  best  to  make  the  actual  recitation  for 
the  younger  pupils  the  full  forty-five  minutes  common  to  high- 
school  practice;  shorter  recitations  with  a  greater  number  of 
subjects  will  broaden  and  give  variety  to  the  daily  program  of 
the  younger  pupils.  This  will  not  necessitate  two  kinds  of 
recitation  periods  in  the  school  and  will  occasion  no  administra- 
tive difficulty.  When  the  teaching  staff  is  sufficient,  there  can 
be  uniform  periods  for  all,  with  a  provision  for  supervised  study 
during  part  of  the  period.  This  will  add  to  the  flexibility  of 
the  organization,  and  make  it  convenient  for  the  school  to  per- 
form one  of  the  important  functions  of  the  junior  high  school; 
namely,  to  teach  pupils  how  to  study. 

When  possible  it  is  highly  advantageous,  although  not  funda- 
mental, for  a  junior  high  school  to  have  a  separate  building  and 
especially  a  separate  school  life;  this  makes  for  convenience 
in  meeting  the  individual  needs  of  the  pupils  and  providing 
the  many  activities  outside  the  classroom  which  are  so  necessary 
in  adaptmg  the  school  life  to  the  expanding  natures  of  the  pupils 
at  this  stage  of  development.  There  should  be  athletic  teams, 
an  orchestra,  school  colors,  school  yells,  a  literary  society,  and 
other  things  peculiar  to  the  school;  such  features  make  school 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         l6l 

life  worth  while  and  provide  training  in  group  activity.  A 
separate  school  life  is  conducive  to  these  extra-class  activities. 

The  prerequisite  for  admission  is  another  administrative 
aspect  that  has  received  considerable  attention.  It  would 
seem  that,  if  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  a  separate  organiza- 
tion is  that  we  may  better  adapt  methods  and  subject-matter 
to  pupils  of  nearly  the  same  stage  of  development,  then  it  would 
logically  follow  that  a  certain  degree  of  physical  and  mental 
development,  rather  than  a  certain  amount  of  subject-matter 
covered,  should  constitute  the  entrance  requirement.  This 
plan  of  admitting  pupils  would  perhaps  be  more  difficult  to 
administer  because  less  definite. 

Recent  studies  of  the  situation  show  a  great  variety  of  usage 
in  the  grouping  of  grades;  all  of  the  following  plans  are  found, — 
6-2-4,  6-6,  6-3-3,  3.nd  6-4-2,  with  the  largest  number  in  the 
North  Central  territory  using  the  first  plan.  However,  the 
tendency  seems  now  to  be  strongly  toward  the  6-3-3  arrange- 
ment, and  that,  as  has  already  been  explained,  for  psychological 
reasons.  The  other  ways  of  grouping  are  often  made  necessary 
by  local  conditions,  particularly  by  the  housing  facilities. 
When  the  school  population  is  too  small  to  warrant  a  junior 
high  school,  the  6-6  plan  can  easily  be  adopted  and  the  psycho- 
logical advantages  of  the  new  idea  secured.  A  decided  majority 
of  educational  leaders,  in  keeping  with  the  present  tendencies 
in  the  junior-high-school  movement,  strongly  favors  some  kind 
of  arrangement  which  brings  a  change  of  method  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventh  school  year;  this,  it  is  pretty  well  agreed, 
is  where  secondary  education  should  begin.  This  idea  receives 
the  support  of  the  best  European  experience:  in  the  Enghsh 
secondary  schools,  in  the  German  gymnasium,  and  in  the 
French  lyce^  the  pupils  begin  their  secondary-school  work  from 
two  to  four  years  earlier  than  in  this  country,  and  the  school 
curriculums  range  from  six  to  nine  years.  In  none  of  these 
countries  does  the  elementary  school,  as  we  understand  the 


l62  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

term,  extend  beyond  six  years.  Moreover,  all  the  discussion 
and  all  the  experiments  have,  as  the  California  Committee 
on  Readjustment  affirms,  tended  toward  breaking  up  "the 
traditional  notion  about  the  grouping  of  grades." 

The  junior  high  school  is  too  new  an  institution  to  warrant 
students  of  education  in  making  any  safe  generaHzations  con- 
cerning its  effect  on  such  matters  as  enrolment,  elimination, 
and  retardation.  But  from  the  studies  that  have  been  at- 
tempted the  following  guarded  statements  emerge:  (i)  the 
increased  enrolment  in  the  last  six  grades  is  due  in  part  to  the 
junior  high  school;  (2)  the  percentage  of  pupils  held  in  both 
the  junior  and  senior  high  schools  is  somewhat  greater  than 
under  the  old  arrangement;  (3)  the  percentage  of  boys  retained 
in  both  schools  is  greater  under  the  new  form  of  organization. 
It  is  believed,  too,  that  the  number  of  "repeaters"  has  been 
reduced. 

An  ever-present  consideration  with  school  boards  and  super- 
intendents is  the  cost  of  maintenance.  If  the  junior  high  school 
is  to  accomplish  what  its  friends  anticipate,  it  is  reasonable  to 
expect  that  the  expense  per  capita  will  be  about  midway  be- 
tween the  six-grade  elementary  school  and  the  three-grade 
senior  high  school;  for,  although  there  will  be  needed  much 
more  equipment  than  is  found  in  the  old  elementary  school, 
it  need  not  be  so  elaborate  or  expensive  as  that  used  in  the 
high  school,  and  the  salaries  of  teachers  are  likely  to  be  about 
midway  between.  Some  of  the  extra  expense  will  be  due  to 
the  cost  of  industrial  training,  which  has  always  been  more 
expensive.  If  these  suppositions  are  correct,  it  will  probably 
figure  out  that  the  whole  school  budget  is  larger  than  it  was 
under  the  old  arrangement,  although  Professor  Hanus  and  others 
have  estimated  that  it  would  be  less.  But  the  matter  of  in- 
creased cost  is  only  an  initial  difficulty;  if  it  can  be  clearly 
demonstrated  that  the  junior  high  school  is  more  efficient  as 
an  educational  device,  the  American  people  will  gladly  support 


TRANSITION  TO    THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         163 

it,  as  another  item  in  the  gradual  increase  in  the  cost  of  educa- 
tion. But  this  way  of  figuring  ignores  the  old  waste  of  the 
pupil's  time  and  energy.  The  most  important  consideration 
pertaining  to  this  phase  of  the  subject  is  that  it  will  bring  about 
a  better  distribution  of  the  school  funds;  for,  in  nearly  all 
school  systems,  there  has  been  a  disproportionate  amount  spent 
on  the  high  school,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  children  of  the  tax  payers  enter  the  high 
school  and  much  fewer  graduate.  With  the  6-3-3  plan,  if 
the  junior  high  school's  share  of  the  school  budget  is  midway 
between  the  other  two  units  of  the  system,  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  (where  the  attendance  is  more  nearly  com- 
plete) will  participate  in  the  advantage  resulting  from  more 
expensive  equipment  and  higher  salaried  teachers.  It  will 
prove  a  natural  device  for  pushing  a  portion  of  the  school  funds 
lower  down  in  the  grades.  Thus  the  cost  argument  against 
the  junior  high  school  is  not  very  convincing. 

One  of  the  most  important  administrative  advantages  will 
come  from  the  possibility  of  better  provision  for  the  social  and 
recreational  activities  of  the  pupils.  Because  of  the  more 
homogeneous  school  atmosphere  and  the  social  solidarity  that 
results  from  grouping  together  pupils  of  the  same  stage  of 
development,  the  extra-school  activities  can  be  better  organ- 
ized and  more  effectively  supervised.  The  atmosphere  of  the 
well-regulated  high  school  is  greatly  needed  in  early  adolescence; 
as  has  been  shown  in  Part  I,  the  social  instincts  and  impulses 
of  boys  and  girls  at  this  time  are  developing  rapidly,  hence  an 
opportunity  must  be  given  for  their  exercise,  and  adequate 
provision  made  for  their  direction  and  training.  In  brief,  the 
junior  high  school  can  better  meet  the  social  needs  of  the  pupils. 
As  Professor  E.  J.  Swift  has  expressed  it,  "Enlarged,  sound 
mentaUty  is  the  result  of  life  amid  broad  and  sound  social  re- 
lations." 

The  critics  of  the  junior  high  school  have  claimed  that  the 


l64  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

pupils  will  naturally  lose  the  close  personal  touch  of  the  grade 
teacher  who  is  with  them  throughout  the  school  day  for  a 
whole  school  year,  and  any  loss  of  wholesome  personal  influence 
at  this  time  of  life  is  a  rather  serious  matter.  But,  if  a  vigorous 
school  spirit  is  developed  and  a  wholesome  social  atmosphere 
created,  the  loss  referred  to  will  be  much  more  than  made  up; 
for  the  pupils  have  now  reached  a  stage  in  their  social  growth 
when  they  greatly  desire  to  be  one  in  spirit,  and  this  social 
unity  is  a  powerful  influence,  making  for  social  efficiency  and 
necessary  to  the  training  in  loyalty  that  must  not  under  any 
consideration  be  neglected  at  this  time. 

rx 

A  final  word  about  buildings,  equipment,  and  text-books. 
In  many  of  the  larger  cities  separate  buildings  are  being  pro- 
vided for  their  junior  high  schools;  this  plan,  as  various  writers 
have  pointed  out,  facilitates  administration  and  organization 
and  it  is  likely  to  result  in  better  provisions  being  made  for 
shop  and  laboratory  work.  In  the  smaller  cities  it  is  not  gener- 
ally deemed  necessary  to  provide  a  separate  building.  In 
many  places  the  old  high-school  building  is  turned  over  to  the 
new  junior  high  school.  When  the  senior  high  school  has  out- 
grown the  old  building,  this  is  the  most  economical  way  of  man- 
aging matters;  and  this  adjustment  furnishes  a  building  well 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  junior  high  school.  A  walk  of  at 
least  a  mile  and  a  half  to  and  from  school  is  no  disadvantage  to 
boys  and  girls  of  this  age;  this  will  make  it  possible  in  most 
cities  to  assemble  as  many  pupils  as  the  ideal  school  of  this 
type  needs  for  administrative  purposes. 

In  the  matter  of  equipment,  if  the  boys  and  girls  are  to  be 
given  "practical  prevocational  hints  and  vision  of  the  great 
workaday  world  into  which  most  of  them  are  so  soon  to  plunge," 
as  F.  M.  Davenport  phrases  it,  and  if  the  presentation  is  to 
be  made  as  concrete  as  has  been  urged  in  this  chapter,  their 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         165 

must  be  suitable  apparatus,  tools,  and  materials,  quite  differ- 
ent from  that  found  in  the  ordinary  elementary  school.  In 
some  cases  the  initial  cost  of  this  equipment  will  be  considerable, 
the  amount  depending  on  what  phases  of  the  new  movement 
are  to  receive  emphasis;  but  it  is  a  matter  next  in  importance 
to  providing  well  qualified  teachers  if  the  work  is  to  make  a 
strong  appeal  to  the  pupils  and  the  community. 

Lastly,  there  are  probably  at  present  only  a  few  text-books 
well  fitted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  of  junior-high-school  age. 
But  this,  too,  is  only  a  temporary  obstacle;  text-book  publishers 
very  promptly  began  to  announce  new  series  of  books  for  the 
junior  high  school  with  "new  and  invigorating  ingredients." 
This  is  a  difficulty,  however,  that  should  be  gradually  overcome; 
for,  if  the  new  texts  are  to  be  really  adapted  to  the  interests 
and  needs  of  the  pupils,  they  must  be  carefully  worked  out 
with  the  children  in  the  schoolroom  and  by  only  the  better 
qualified  teachers;  in  this  matter  it  will  be  best  to  "make 
haste  slowly." 

X 

In  this  chapter  the  author  has  attempted  to  make  clear  the 
place  and  function,  as  he  sees  it,  of  this  new  unit  of  organization 
which  is  being  rapidly  developed  within  our  educational  sys- 
tem. If  he  has  been  successful,  he  has  shown  that  the  junior 
high  school  is  being  evolved  for  the  purpose  of  trying  to  solve  a 
long-standing  and  difficult  problem,  namely,  to  meet  in  a  more 
vital  manner  the  interests  and  the  social  and  vocational  demands 
of  the  boys  and  girls  of  early  adolescence  that  have  reached 
about  the  same  stage  of  physical  and  mental  development, 
to  effect  a  more  perfect  articulation  of  all  the  parts  of  our  edu- 
cational system,  to  furnish  instruction  and  training  that  are 
both  fundamental  and  practical,  cultural  and  broadly  prevo- 
cational,  to  carry  down  into  the  elementary  grades,  again  using 


l66  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

Davenport's  words,  "simple  and  important  beginnings  in  that 
culture  of  science,  of  history,  of  art,  of  industry,  of  political  and 
social  experience,  which  help  to  make  the  mind  of  man  free  and 
useful  in  the  modern  world,  a  culture  heretofore  too  narrowly 
reserved  for  the  favored  few  in  the  higher  schools  and  colleges 
and  universities,"  to  proceed  on  the  assumption  that,  at  this 
stage  of  the  pupils'  development,  attitudes  and  capacities, 
initiative  and  personal  resources  are  the  important  considera- 
tions, and  to  offer  to  all  equal  opportunities  by  providing  the 
kind  of  training  that  the  varying  nature  and  social  outlook  of 
each  demands,  albeit,  the  differentiation  does  not  result  in 
any  sorting  process  or  is  not  made  an  opportunity  for  capital  to 
exploit  labor. 

The  fundamental  ideas  underlying  this  movement,  as 
expressed  by  various  educational  leaders,  seem  to  be  (i)  an 
"intimate  and  intensive  study  of  the  individualities  of  the 
pupils,"  (2)  "continuous  and  uninterrupted  opportunity  for 
every  pupil,"  (3)  an  earlier  definite  start  for  pupils  intended  for 
the  professions  and  for  those  entering  commercial  and  indus- 
trial callings,  (4)  "progressive  differentiation"  of  subject- 
matter  and  methods  in  response  to  the  changing  personal  needs 
and  the  demands  of  "  our  aspiring  but  somewhat  chaotic  Amer- 
ican life,"  and  (5)  a  scientific  rather  than  a  traditional  grouping 
of  the  grades.  We  trust  that  the  reader  does  not  believe  that 
our  eight-year  elementary  school,  which  appears  to  be  the  result 
of  ill-advised  borrowing  from  the  Prussian  folksschide,  is  an  in- 
stitution fixed  by  the  laws  of  nature,  but  that  he  does  beUeve 
that  the  time  is  ripe  for  the  working  out  in  the  interests  of  a  more 
complete  democracy  of  some  such  natural  unit  as  is  here 
described.  At  any  rate,  it  is  encouraging  to  know  that  many 
educational  leaders  have  faith  and  are  showing  it  by  their 
works,  although  the  results  thus  far  are  naturally  somewhat 
chaotic  because  of  lack  of  agreement  as  to  aims  and  func- 
tions. 


TRANSITION  TO  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  167 

So  far  as  this  book  is  concerned,  the  consideration  of  the 
junior  high  school  and  all  that  the  movement  involves  is  con- 
fined to  this  chapter.  The  following  chapters  deal  with 
problems  connected  with  the  regular  four-year  high  school, 
the  kind  of  a  school  in  which  a  great  majority  of  high-school 
principals  and  teachers  will  continue  to  serve  for  many  years 
to  come. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  AMERICAN  HIGH-SCHOOL  GROUP 

The  pupils  of  our  high  schools  today  form  a  very  heteroge- 
neous group;  and,  because  of  this  fact,  problems  arise  that  did 
not  exist  seventy-five  years  ago.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
high  schools  of  our  large  cities.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  brief 
chapter  to  describe  the  nature  of  the  high-school  group  and 
discuss  some  of  the  problems  arising  therefrom. 

Until  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  boys 
and  girls  seeking  a  secondary  education  were  largely  from  the 
families  of  the  better  classes,  where  English  was  the  language 
spoken  in  the  home,  and  the  parents  of  nearly  all  were  American 
bom.  A  comparatively  large  number  of  the  pupils  who  at- 
tended the  early  academies  and  high  schools  were  preparing 
for  something  definite,  many  of  them  expecting  to  enter  college 
or  one  of  the  professions;  and  we  have  learned  from  the  studies 
of  J.  K.  Van  Denburg  and  others  that  a  definite  vocational 
motive  acts  as  a  favorable  influence,  both  on  the  quality  of  the 
work  done  and  on  the  length  of  time  that  the  pupils  remain 
in  school,  especially  is  the  influence  of  definite  expectations 
manifest  in  the  case  of  those  who  have  chosen  careers  requiring 
college  or  professional  training.  Thus  the  early  high  school 
and  academy  had  a  homogeneous  enrolment,  judged  intellect- 
ually and  socially,  and  the  pupils  were  stimulated  by  the  pros- 
pects of  a  definite  and  worthy  calling  and  often  by  helpful  fam- 
ily traditions. 

The  problems  of  the  early  secondary  schools  were  simple, 
too,  because  of  the  modest  social  and  industrial  demands  made 
by  the  communities  which  they  served.    The  modem  indus- 

i68 


THE  AMERICAN  HIGH-SCHOOL  GROUP  169 

tries  were  in  their  infancy,  and  consequently  the  varied  demands 
of  modem  society  did  not  disturb  and  distract  the  thoughts 
of  the  worthy  masters  and  pupils  of  those  early  days.  The 
aims  and  functions  of  the  secondary  schools  were  not  then  seri- 
ously in  question,  because  they  were  so  simple  and  taken  as  a 
matter  of  course;  and  the  modern  discussions  of  educational 
values  did  not  ring  in  the  ears  of  the  early  curriculum  maker. 
There  was  then  no  demand  on  the  part  of  influential  employers 
of  labor  that  the  high  schools  turn  out  narrowly  trained  workers, 
ready  to  become  part  of  a  great  industrial  machine.  There 
was  no  opposition  between  the  standards  of  the  practical  busi- 
ness man  on  the  one  hand  and  the  individual  and  cultural  de- 
mands on  the  other.  In  brief,  peace  and  harmony  prevailed 
both  within  and  without  the  academic  walls,  consequently  the 
problems  were  few  and  simple. 

Dr.  L.  D.  Coffman  of  the  University  of  Minnesota  has  said 
that  "the  growth  and  improvement  of  the  high  school  repre- 
sents the  most  significant  movement  in  American  education  in 
the  last  fifty  years;"  and,  when  we  realize  that  this  remarkable 
growth  has  resulted  in  this  country  having  enrolled  in  its  high 
schools  a  larger  per  cent  of  youths  than  any  other  country  and  a 
larger  number  of  pupils  than  the  rest  of  the  world  combined, 
we  no  longer  expect  to  find  in  these  schools  a  select  group;  for 
we  know  that  the  pupils  must  come  from  every  economic  and 
social  stratum  of  the  people;  and  the  data  that  have  already 
been  collected  fully  support  this  inference.  Van  Denburg's 
studies  of  the  schools  of  New  York  City  indicate  the  utmost 
variety  in  the  enrolment,  as  to  race,  social  standing,  and  in- 
dustrial station;  and  it  is  probable  that  a  similar  study  of  some 
of  our  other  large  cities  would  reveal  a  somewhat  like  condition; 
hence  a  few  of  Van  Denburg's  findings  are  here  reported,  as 
throwing  light  on  the  way  the  great  influx  of  mixed  pupils  has 
tended  to  complicate  the  problems  of  the  curriculum  and  of 
organization  and  management.^ 


170  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

It  was  found  that  nearly  every  race  in  the  city  is  sending 
pupils  to  the  high  schools.  Of  the  twenty-three  races  repres- 
ented, the  Hebrews  are  sending  more  in  proportion  to  their 
numbers  than  any  of  the  others,  the  boys  outnumbering  the 
girls  five  to  four.  In  point  of  numbers  the  pupils  from  the 
American  homes  rank  second;  from  these  homes  the  girls  ex- 
ceed the  boys  almost  two  to  one.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
there  is  represented  in  this  great  racial  mixture  a  correspond- 
ing variety  of  standards  and  ideals  as  to  habits,  conduct,  and 
culture,  and  that  the  problem  of  unifying  this  cosmopoUtan 
mass  is  consequently  more  difficult. 

Van  Denburg  attempted  to  determine  the  economic  status 
of  the  pupils  from  the  rents  paid  for  the  homes  and  the  occu- 
pations of  the  fathers.  As  might  be  expected,  the  extremes  are 
very  great;  the  lower  extreme  is  surprisingly  low,  showing  the 
extent  to  which  the  poorer  classes  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  a  high-school  education,  and  the  hold  the  American  high 
school  has  gained  on  the  imagination  of  the  people.  More  than 
fifty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  came  from  homes  that  cost  from  ten 
to  twenty  dollars  per  month  rental.  This  statement  is  signifi- 
cant to  any  one  familiar  with  conditions  and  standards  in  New 
York  City;  it  indicates  that  the  standard  of  living  in  these 
homes  is  very  low  and  that  the  parents  are  making  a  real  sacri- 
fice in  order  to  send  their  children  to  high  school.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  population,  the  city  and  federal  employees  contrib- 
ute the  largest  number  of  pupils;  but  nearly  half  of  the  entire 
enrolment  is  made  up  of  children  of  fathers  classed  as  artisan- 
contractors,  manufacturers,  and  tradesmen.  A  study  of  three 
cities  in  Iowa  by  Professor  Irving  King  formerly  of  the  State 
University  shows  a  somewhat  similar  social  distribution  of  the 
high-school  pupils,  judged  by  their  father's  occupations,  the 
most  interesting  difference  being  that  the  professional  classes 
in  Iowa  are  patronizing  the  public  high  schools  better  than  the 
same  classes  in  New  York  City, 


THE  AMERICAN  fflGH-SCHOOL  GROUP  171 

When  the  modern  high-school  group  is  questioned  as  to 
vocational  expectations,  the  variety  of  occupations  named  by 
the  pupils  indicates  a  breadth  of  outlook  full  of  significance  for 
those  responsible  for  the  solution  of  high-school  problems. 
In  New  York  forty  different  callings  are  mentioned  by  the  Doys 
and  twenty-one  by  the  girls;  a  study  of  eleven  hundred  and 
nine  pupils  in  three  Iowa  high  schools  shows  an  even  greater 
range  of  occupations  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The  wide 
vocational  and  social  outlook  revealed  by  the  Van  Denburg 
and  King  studies  of  the  two  localities,  differing  so  much  in 
character  and  so  widely  separated,  points  definitely  to  a  curric- 
ulum problem,  which  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 
This  problem  in  its  most  modern  phase  is  largely  the  result  of 
the  marvelous  growth  of  the  high  schools  since  1890,  the  in- 
crease from  1892  to  1921  being  over  356  per  cent;  and  there  has 
begti  a  parallel  increase  in  the  number  and  intricacy  of  the 
vocational  demands. 

But,  according  to  the  data  submitted  by  Van  Denburg,  there 
is  a  more  urgent  high-school  problem  than  the  one  growing  out 
of  the  extremes  indicated  by  the  social  status  and  the  vocational 
preferences  of  the  pupils,  and  that  is  the  problem  connected  with 
the  education  of  that  portion  of  the  high-school  group  which 
enters  without  any  vocational  expectations;  it  was  found  that 
these  pupils  do  poorer  work  while  in  school  and  that  they  are 
much  more  Ukely  to  leave  soon  after  entering.  The  problem 
originating  from  this  portion  of  the  high  school  is  more  urgent 
and  much  more  difficult,  for  this  gives  rise  to  a  general  educa- 
tional problem;  whereas  the  extremes  in  social  and  vocational 
demands  set  a  specific  problem,  and  a  problem  that  is  now  being 
attacked  with  much  vigor  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country. 

There  is  another  way  in  which  the  high-school  pupils  of  the 
present  vary  greatly  (although  in  early  times  the  variation  was 
even  greater)  and  that  is  in  their  age  of  entering.  For  prac- 
tical purposes  it  may  be  understood  that  the  entering  age 


172  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

varies  from  twelve  to  seventeen,  the  medium  being  fourteen  and 
nine-tenths  in  Iowa  and  fourteen  and  five-tenths  in  New  York. 
A  difference  of  five  or  more  years  in  the  age  of  the  pupils  creates 
problems  of  its  own:  the  intellectual  interests  and  the  social 
instincts,  as  we  have  seen,  are  changing  so  rapidly  at  this  time 
that  comparatively  small  differences  in  age  produce  marked 
changes  in  the  nature  of  the  boy  and  girl;  and  the  consequent 
variation  in  maturity  tends  to  complicate  the  work  of  the  high 
school.  For  this  problem  various  solutions  have  been  tried 
in  the  larger  high  schools,  the  most  successful  being  the  classi- 
fication of  pupils  according  to  physiological,  rather  than  chron- 
ological, age  in  part  or  all  of  their  studies.  Van  Denburg 
reaches  the  conclusion  that,  "as  far  as  age  is  concerned,  thir- 
teen is  the  ideal  age  for  high-school  entrance;"  he  bases  this 
conclusion  on  the  percentage  of  pupils  of  different  entering 
ages  that  remain  in  high  school  till  graduation. 

The  heterogeneous  character  of  the  high-school  group  al- 
ready described  suggests  other  differences,  not  so  important, 
perhaps,  from  the  standpoint  of  high-school  management  and 
method.  We  should  expect  to  find  represented  in  the  large 
high  schools  of  the  country  every  possible  religion  (including 
non-religion)  and  every  possible  degree  of  general  intelligence 
and  culture.  Fortunately  religious  differences  no  longer  con- 
stitute a  problem,  unless  it  be  in  a  few  isolated  cases  where 
reading  the  Bible  in  the  schools  has  made  trouble.  But  all 
high-school  teachers  are  continually  made  aware  of  the  bearing 
of  general  intelligence,  educational  background,  and  culture 
upon  the  daily  work  of  the  pupil  in  nearly  all  subjects;  the 
differences  thus  arising  color  all  the  efforts  of  the  pupils  and 
give  to  their  work  a  different  perspective  in  spite  of  the  most 
skilful  teaching;  these  are  all  very  potent  factors  in  the  edu- 
cative process,  and  they  give  rise  to  real  teaching  problems. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  have  attempted  to  show  the  ex- 
tremely varied  character  of  the  modern  high-school  group,  due 


THE  AMERICAN  HIGH-SCHOOL  GROUP  173 

to  social,  economic,  vocational,  age,  and  cultural  differences, 
with  a  view  to  making  clear  the  lack  of  unity  that  naturally 
grows  out  of  these  diJfferences.  When  we  add  the  differences 
due  to  the  causes  and  conditions  just  discussed  to  the  extreme 
individual  variations  that  we  discovered  in  our  study  of  ad61es- 
cent  nature  (where  abundance  of  life  seems  the  only  common 
characteristic),  we  realize  more  fully  the  scope  and  the  inherent 
difficulties  involved  in  high-school  teaching,  organization,  and 
management. 

Not  only  do  these  individual  differences  in  the  high-school 
group  effect  the  problems  of  the  curriculum,  the  organization, 
and  methods  of  teaching,  but  they  make  it  more  difficult  to 
maintain  the  principles  and  spirit  of  democracy,  so  necessary 
to  the  welfare  of  the  pupils  and  the  school.  In  the  remaining 
chapters  an  effort  is  made  to  propose  some  of  the  means  of 
solving  the  problems  and  overcoming  the  difficulties  here  out- 
lined; but  a  few  suggestions  are  here  inserted  concerning  three 
ways  that  have  been  used  with  varying  success  in  many  high 
schools.  The  heterogeneous  nature  of  the  high-school  group 
would  seem  to  suggest  that  the  problems  involved  fall  into 
two  classes:  one,  the  meeting  of  the  individual  needs,  which 
we  have  found  so  divergent;  and  the  other,  the  harmonizing 
and  bringing  about  within  the  group  intellectual  and  social 
unity.  The  suggestions  that  follow  pertain  to  the  discovery 
and  meeting  of  individual  interests  and  needs;  the  other  class 
of  problems  will  be  treated  later. 

I.  Some  kind  of  an  advisory  system  is  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon devices  for  reaching  the  individual  pupils  in  a  large  high 
school.  In  our  study  of  adolescence  we  found  that  the  friend- 
ship and  sympathy  of  some  adult  with  sense  and  judgment 
are  greatly  needed  by  both  boys  and  girls  in  their  teens;  and 
the  writer  knows  from  the  testimony  of  many  high-school  grad- 
uates how  much  the  kindly  interest  and  advice  of  teachers  in 
whom  the  human  element  loomed  large  were  appreciated, 


174  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

and  how  much  credit  for  success  in  school  is  awarded  to  such 
teachers.  On  entering  a  large  high  school  many  pupils  find 
themselves  swamped  by  the  many  new  things  and  strange  people 
that  surround  them;  and,  instead  of  being  in  a  condition  to 
think  correctly  and  act  wisely,  when  so  much  depends  upon  being 
able  to  do  so,  they  are  bewildered  and  embarrassed,  and  it  is  not 
surprising  that  they  either  fail  or  become  discouraged.  Thus 
there  is  no  doubt  that  many  pupils,  especially  during  the  first 
year  in  a  large  high  school,  very  much  need  the  personal  atten- 
tion of  at  least  one  teacher  who  is  able  quickly  to  establish  a 
helpful  relationship.  This  teacher  must  readily  learn  the  pu- 
pil's nature  and  make  him  feel  that  he  may  come  for  advice 
whenever  it  is  needed;  the  advice  may  be  about  books  that  are 
difficult  to  read  and  understand,  the  workings  of  some  part  of 
the  school  machinery  (so  often  a  mystery  at  first),  the  way  to 
obtain  membership  in  some  pupil  organization,  or  some  purely 
personal  matter.  An  advisory  system  is  a  scheme  to  restore 
the  personal  element  that  was  lost  when  the  small  high  school 
became  large.  If  the  school  numbers  about  one  hundred,  there 
can  be  an  advisor  for  each  of  the  four  classes.  Experience 
has  shown  that  it  is  not  well  to  assign  more  than  twenty  or 
thirty  pupils  to  a  teacher  if  the  work  is  to  be  done  effectively; 
and  that  it  is  very  pleasant  and  profitable  for  the  same  teacher 
to  remain  with  the  same  group  of  pupils  throughout  their  four 
years;  the  relationships  often  become  close  and  the  resulting 
friendships  lasting.  The  successful  teachers  in  this  line  of 
effort  must  have  tact,  judgment,  a  knowledge  of  adolescent 
nature,  and  a  broad  outlook  on  life.  It  is  the  personal  element, 
the  friendly  acquaintance  and  interest,  the  sympathetic  under- 
standing that  count  and  are  more  important  than  the  helpful 
advice  given.  The  author  feels  strongly  that,  in  order  to  be 
most  effective,  the  whole  arrangement  must  be  as  informal  and 
unofficial  as  possible,  otherwise  the  advice  may  seem  to  be 
something  that  the  taxpayers  pay  for,  like  the  apparatus  and 


THE  AMERICAN  HIGH-SCHOOL  GROUP  175 

the  teaching,  and  hence  lacking  the  human  touch  and  the  ele- 
ment of  spontaneity. 

2.  Another  plan  for  establishing  personal  contact  between  the 
pupil  and  the  teacher  is  an  arrangement  for  conference  hours; 
this  is  an  effort  to  aid  the  pupils  more  directly  in  their  school 
work,  making  possible  the  clearing  up  of  lesson  difficulties  or 
the  making  up  of  work  that  has  been  missed.  Some  high 
schools  have  arranged  for  an  hour  a  week  in  certain  studies  to 
be  given  over  to  informal  discussions  and  helping  with  the  work. 
It  has  been  the  author's  observation  that,  when  the  right  amount 
of  work  is  expected  of  teachers  and  they  are  earnest  and  enthus- 
iastic about  their  subjects  and  their  pupils,  it  usually  comes 
about  that  the  necessary  conferences  are  arranged  without 
any  general  school  regulation;  like  the  advisory  system  just 
discussed,  the  conferences  that  result  from  the  teacher's  atti- 
tude and  initiative  are  likely  to  be  most  appreciated  and  prove 
most  helpful. 

3.  A  still  more  formal  way  of  rendering  individual  assistance 
to  the  pupils  needing  it  is  what  has  come  to  be  known  as  super- 
vised study.  There  have  been  very  many  and  very  encourag- 
ing reports  concerning  the  successes  of  this  plan.  This  scheme 
usually  involves  the  lengthening  of  the  school  day  for  both 
pupils  and  teachers;  in  some  cases  this  feature  of  the  plan  is 
highly  desirable.  Although  something  like  supervised  study 
is  doubtless  needed  by  the  less  mature  pupils,  it  would  seem 
that,  like  other  similar  devices  for  lessening  personal  responsibil- 
ity and  effort,  it  might  easily  be  overdone,  or  in  the  hands  of 
an  unsympathetic  teacher  become  very  formal  and  perfunctory. 
The  pupils  must  be  given  a  chance  to  do  solitary  studying  and 
they  must  be  held  responsible  for  the  results  of  this  independ- 
ent work,  otherwise  one  of  the  best  elements  in  their  school  life 
will  be  lost.  It  is  very  important,  however,  that  the  pupils 
be  given  instruction  in  the  art  of  studying;  to  learn  how  to 
study  is  really  one  of  the  best  reasons*  for  attending  school. 


176  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

We  all  know  that  the  most  necessary  element  in  learning  how 
to  study  is  individual  effort,  the  effort  that  tempers  the  will 
and  develops  the  power  of  concentration;  however,  experience 
has  proved  that  some  help  can  be  given  by  specific  instruction 
concerning  many  points  in  the  art  of  study,  and  high-school 
pupils  are  certainly  entitled  to  all  the  help  that  can  be  given 
in  this  form.  Two  or  three  excellent  small  books  on  the  most 
effective  habits  of  study  have  recently  been  published. 

In  concluding  this  chapter  on  the  nature  of  the  American 
high-school  group  of  today,  it  would  seem  well  to  remind  the 
reader  that  this  great  variety  of  personaUties,  abilities,  social 
standing,  culture,  and  ideals  furnishes  the  very  best  means  for 
training  almost  any  individual  for  social  efficiency  in  a  democ- 
racy. Hence  the  very  conditions  which  make  the  successful 
organization  and  management  of  a  large  modem  high  school 
so  difficult  are  the  ideal  conditions  in  which  to  build  strong 
character  and  train  for  citzenship.  In  the  pubhc  high  school, 
composed  as  it  is  of  representatives  of  every  element  of  the 
community,  the  pupil  finds  life  as  nearly  as  possible  like  the 
life  outside  of  the  school,  the  life  which  he  will  soon  have  to 
live.  It  cannot  be  proved,  but  many  are  fully  convinced  that 
no  select  group,  no  matter  on  what  basis  the  group  is  formed, 
provides  the  stimulating  conditions  found  in  the  pubHc  high 
school;  here  we  have  a  miniature  world  with  all  its  strange 
and  discordant  elements,  and  adolescence  is  the  time  to  learn 
how  to  deal  with  these  elements,  because  at  no  other  time  are 
the  human  sympathies  so  broad  and  the  necessary  social  ad- 
justments so  easily  made. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  CURRICULUM 


The  building  of  a  high-school  curriculum  is  a  problem  worthy 
the  best  efforts  of  any  educator;  it  is  a  task  that  tests  his  peda- 
gogical knowledge  and  his  ability  to  think  broadly  and  scientifi- 
cally in  the  whole  field  of  education.  For  several  years  the 
secondary  school  has  been  the  storm  center  of  educational 
discussion  and  criticism;  and  it  has  been  upon  the  curriculum 
that  the  tempest  has  broken  with  much  violence.  The  remark- 
able period  of  upheaval  that  we  are  passing  through  contrasts 
strikingly  with  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  standards  and  values  in  matters  educational  were  rela- 
tively settled,  and  the  critics  (whom  we  fortunately  have  al- 
ways with  us)  were  not,  as  now,  questioning  the  standards  and 
principles  that  had  guided  educational  thinking  for  many 
generations.  The  famous  report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten 
assured  us  that  a  curriculum  made  up  of  high-school  subjects 
that  best  fitted  pupils  to  enter  a  classical  college,  the  college 
authorities  being  the  judges,  furnishes  the  best  possible  educa- 
tion for  the  boys  and  girls  who  do  not  go  to  college,  and  this 
regardless  of  what  occupations  they  may  follow.  This  assur- 
ance came  from  the  highest  authorities  of  the  land,  it  was  based 
on  the  best  thinking  of  that  period,  and  nearly  everybody  felt 
at  ease  in  Zion;  for,  is  it  not  pleasant  to  have  important  matters 
settled  authoritatively  and  be  allowed  to  go  on  with  one's 
work  undisturbed  by  doubts  and  misgivings?  Not  so  with 
the  first  quarter  of  the  twentieth  century;  the  fundamentals 
and  values  which  have  been  trusted  for  centuries  are  now  being 

177 


178  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

examined,  and  it  is  only  the  ultra  conservatives  who  care  much 
about  what;  happens  to  these  time-honored  landmarks;  nearly- 
all  are  now  in  a  mood  to  accept  the  findings  of  the  venturesome 
educational  experts,  who  are  so  ruthlessly  testing  all  things. 
But  in  the  meantime  the  curriculum  maker  is  sorely  perplexed; 
the  fixed  stars  by  which  he  was  wont  to  sail  with  some  degree 
of  security  are  no  longer  fixed;  and  he  must  find  his  way  by 
means  of  lights  and  bouys  that  are  still  shifting.  To  build  a 
closely-knit,  purposefully-constructed  high-school  curriculum  of 
the  most  approved  materials  is  to  solve  a  most  difiicult  and 
vital  high-school  problem. 

As  the  last  statement  implies,  this  chapter  will  attempt  to 
discuss  only  one  type  of  curriculum  making.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  reader  is  not  interested  in  that  method  of  curriculum  plan- 
ning which  Dr.  C.  H.  Johnston  once  described  as  "clerical  and 
manipulative,"  resulting  in  a  curriculum  on  paper,  made  by  a 
principal  or  superintendent  with  a  sheet  of  paper  before  him 
neatly  ruled  with  columns  of  oblong  spaces  into  which  he  writes 
high-school  subjects,  selected  from  his  program  of  studies  with 
an  eye  to  administrative  convenience.  Such  checker-board 
curriculums  often  look  well  when  printed  in  the  annual  catalog 
of  the  school;  and  the  various  labels  placed  at  the  top,  such  as 
"classical,"  "scientific,"  "college  preparatory,"  "prevoca- 
tional,"  and  the  like,  serve  as  an  advertisement  and  make  the 
patrons  think  that  their  school  is  up-to-date  and  broad  in  its 
scope,  reaching  all  classes  of  pupils.  It  is  hoped  that  the  follow- 
ing discussion  will  be  at  least  suggestive  to  those  who  would  build 
a  real  curriculum,  genuinely  "  discriminating  and  educational," 
and  showing  "evidence  of  design  in  its  construction."  Success 
in  this  undertaking  must  be  based  on  what  Dr.  Johnston  has 
called  "curriculum  thinking;"  and  this  kind  of  thinking  im- 
pKes  a  scientific  attitude  and  a  broad  educational  outlook. 

The  present-day  curriculum  maker  must  have  the  scientific 
attitude,  because  this  is  a  time  when  the  results  which  he  will 


THE  CURRICULUM  179 

obtain,  if  he  follows  the  best  thinking  of  his  day,  will  differ 
very  strikingly  from  those  formerly  accepted;  that  is,  he  must 
have  the  skill  and  the  courage  to  follow  the  light  wherever  it 
may  lead.  He  will  be  influenced  only  by  the  testing,  experi- 
menting, and  thinking  that  are  being  done  and  not  at  all  by 
tradition.  Again,  his  outlook  must  be  broad,  for  the  changing 
curriculum  is  but  a  part  of  a  great,  world-wide  movement.  The 
outstanding  characteristic  of  this  age  is  continuous  and  rapid 
changes  in  standards,  methods,  and  values,  exemplified  in  the 
sciences,  in  statecraft,  in  military  affairs,  in  agriculture,  in 
the  various  industries,  and  in  religion;  in  our  thinking  and  in 
our  practice  we  are  embodying  the  HeracUtan  doctrine  of  eternal 
flux. 

No  one  who  reads  the  educational  literature  of  the  day  or 
listens  to  the  bold  discussion  at  any  educational  gathering 
doubts  that  we  are  in  the  midst  of  the  greatest  and  most  signifi- 
cant educational  troubling  of  the  waters  that  has  occurred 
since  the  Renaissance;  and  this  upheaval  is  manifested  most 
definitely  and  concretely  in  the  changes  and  the  proposed 
changes  in  the  curriculums  of  our  secondary  schools.  The 
changes  are  not  indicated  merely  by  the  offering  of  abso- 
lutely new  subjects  and  the  introduction  of  new  material  in 
the  old  subjects,  but  by  the  shifting  of  the  interests  and  ideals 
of  the  pupils,  made  evident  by  the  way  in  which  they  elect 
their  courses;  a  glance  at  a  graph  showing  the  percentage  of 
pupils  enrolled  throughout  the  United  States  in  the  various 
subjects  old  and  new  from  1900  to  19 15  proves  conclusively 
that  something  unusual  and  worthy  of  note  has  been  happen- 
ing during  these  fifteen  years  and  especially  during  the  last  five 
years.  Relatively  the  study  of  algebra,  geometry,  latin,  phys- 
ical geography,  botany,  zoology,  and  physiology  has  been 
falling  off,  in  the  case  of  some  of  these  studies,  very  rapidly 
during  the  last  five  of  the  fifteen  years;  and  the  same  graph 
shows  a  marvelous  increase  in  the  percentage  of  pupils  studying 


l8o  HIGH-SCH(X)L  PROBLEMS 

domestic  economy,  agriculture,  general  science,  and  modem 
languages.  Is  this  shifting  of  the  pupils'  efforts  due  to  a  mere 
caprice  and  a  liking  for  the  newer  studies,  or  is  it  due  to  a  deep- 
seated  conviction  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  and  parents  that 
the  time-honored  subjects  do  not  contain  all  that  is  vital,  all 
that  will  best  prepare  them  for  "complete  living,"  as  Herbert 
Spencer  long  ago  phrased  it?  The  present  chapter  includes 
an  attempt  to  answer  this  question.  If  we  trust  the  signs  of 
the  times,  the  changes  just  noied  may  be  taken  as  only  a  fore- 
cast of  other  changes  as  great  and  it  would  seem  further-reach- 
ing in  their  effects  that  will  soon  be  upon  us. 

All  that  has  been  said  thus  far  suggests  that  there  can  be  no 
such  thing  as  an  ideal  curriculum,  and,  least  of  all,  a  general 
or  type  curriculum  suited  to  the  needs  of  all  the  different  com- 
munities supporting  high  schools,  schools  with  their  student 
bodies  as  varied  as  was  indicated  in  the  last  chapter.  It  would 
appear,  also,  from  the  preceding  paragraphs  that  a  curriculum 
cannot  be  expected,  even  from  the  combined  wisdom  of  all  the 
educational  experts,  that  will  satisfy  the  needs  of  any  com- 
munity for  a  very  long  period  of  time;  this  would  imply  social 
and  industrial  stagnation.  But,  besides  the  general  social 
changes  continually  going  on  that  must  affect  the  curriculum, 
there  are  gradual  modifications  being  wrought  in  the  content  of 
many  of  the  subjects  themselves,  and,  as  we  have  seen,  changes 
in  the  character  of  the  pupils  who  attend  the  high  schools. 
All  of  these  changes  must  be  contmually  reflected  in  the  scientifi- 
cally constructed  curriculum.  However,  the  actual  modifica- 
tion of  the  high-school  curriculum  is  likely  to  come  about  rather 
slowly;  at  least  we  are  painfully  aware  that  in  the  past  schools 
have  been  extremely  conservative  and  have  lagged  behind  the 
social  and  economic  development  of  their  communities;  school 
officials,  it  would  appear,  have  not  generally  been  very  sensitive 
to  the  transformations  going  on  in  the  world  about  them. 


THE  CURRICULUM  l8l 

n 

This  suggests  that  it  may  be  profitable  to  focus  attention 
briefly  on  the  qualifications  requisite  for  the  one  who  would 
undertake  the  professional  task  of  planning  a  curriculum  for  a 
particular  community. 

1.  The  first  and,  from  the  standpoint  of  this  book,  most 
important  qualification  is  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  adoles- 
cent nature.  This  of  course  is  an  important  prerequisite 
for  every  phase  of  secondary  education,  a  qualification  which 
no  other  wisdom  or  natural  gift  can  replace.  He  who  would 
select  the  educational  pabulum  for  boys  and  girls  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  years  of  age  must  know  their  interests  and  needs, 
otherwise  there  will  be  malnutrition  and  stimted  growth;  and 
the  needs  of  any  organism  are  logically  determined  by  the  nature 
of  that  organism. 

2.  In  the  first  chapter  it  was  stated  that  there  are  two  ways 
of  determining  matters  pertaining  to  method  and  to  the  content 
of  the  curriculum;  namely,  by  the  nature  of  the  educand  and 
by  the  social  outlook  of  the  educand.  Just  now  much  stress 
is  being  placed  on  the  latter;  hence  the  next  qualification  de- 
manded of  the  principal  or  superintendent  as  a  curriculum 
maker  is  a  thorough  and  first  hand  knowledge  of  the  interests 
and  needs  of  his  community.  If  this  is  lacking,  or  if  it  is  not 
reflected  in  his  curriculmn,  any  changes  that  he  introduces  are 
likely  to  be  looked  upon  as  passing  fads  or  arbitrary  inventions 
on  his  part;  consequently  he  may  fail  to  secure  the  cooperation 
of  the  people  concerned.  But  there  is  a  more  important  and 
deeper  reason  for  requiring  a  knowledge  of  the  commimity, 
and  that  is,  the  nature  of  the  community  or  its  social  status 
determines  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  social  and  industrial 
destinies  of  the  pupils.  The  writer  is  fully  aware  that  this 
is  a  dangerous  and  disputed  doctrine.  It  is  easily  apparent 
that,  if  the  ideals  and  industrial  status  of  the  community 
were    thoroughly    to    dommate,    the    result    might    be    the 


1 82  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

narrowest  and  most  provincial  sort  of  a  curriculum,  quali- 
ties most  undesirable,  against  which  the  new  education  pro- 
poses to  wage  unrelenting  warfare;  provincialism  must  be 
uprooted  in  the  interests  of  a  safe  democracy.  The  discussion 
of  this  point  will  be  resumed  later.  It  would  seem  reasonable 
that  any  one  who  proposes  important  curriculum  changes 
ought  to  have  lived  in  his  community  for  at  least  a  year;  with- 
out the  close  knowledge  that  comes  from  residence,  serious 
mistakes  are  liable  to  be  made.  As  an  essential  part  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  local  conditions  and  needs,  there  should  be  perfect 
familiarity  with  the  previous  curriculums  of  the  school  and 
the  way  they  have  worked;  from  this  source  much  light  may 
often  be  thrown  on  the  problem  of  the  new  curriculum;  or- 
dinary tact  and  common-sense  dictate  that  the  past  cannot  be 
entirely  ignored,  for  all  established  things  have  some  reason  for 
beiag  and  they  have  friends  who  believe  in  their  use. 

3.  The  third  qualification  to  be  mentioned  is  a  knowledge  of 
the  trend  of  educational  thought  in  general  and  familiarity 
with  the  history  of  the  high-school  curriculum  in  particular. 
The  reasons  for  insisting  on  this  qualification  are  too  obvious 
to  need  stating.  It  is  only  this  kind  of  knowledge  that  gives 
educational  perspective,  an  absolute  requirement  for  curric- 
ulum thinking  and  one  of  the  safeguards  against  serious  ped- 
agogical blundering. 

4.  The  next  qualification  is  more  general  and  makes  a  higher 
demand,  but  is  essential  to  the  highest  and  most  original  curric- 
ulum thinking  and  planning;  it  calls  for  an  appreciative  un- 
derstanding of  the  best  thought  of  the  age,  a  knowledge  of 
"the  general  march  of  events,"  a  consciousness  of  the  spirit 
of  the  age.  Without  this  qualification  on  the  part  of  our  curric- 
ulum makers,  education  will  of  necessity  become  an  isolated 
affair,  cut  off  from  all  vital  connection  with  the  world,  which 
it  is  supposed  to  serve.  As  Dewey  insists,  "the  modification 
going  on  in  our  method  and  curriculum  of  education  is  as  much 


THE  CURRICULUM  183 

a  product  of  the  changed  social  situation,  and  as  much  an  effort 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  new  society  that  is  forming,  as  are 
changes  in  modes  of  industry  and  commerce."  Education  is 
"part  and  parcel  of  the  whole  social  evolution,"  and  this  funda- 
mental fact  must  always  be  reflected  in  the  changing  curric- 
ulum; hence,  the  high  demand  on  him  who  would  essay  the 
task  under  discussion. 

5.  No  one  can  act  wisely  and  safely  for  his  school  in  planning 
its  curriculum  unless  he  is  fully  informed  concerning  the  finan- 
cial means  at  its  disposal.  This  will  determine  somewhat 
definitely  the  number  and  nature  of  the  courses  that  can  be 
included  in  the  program  of  studies:  limited  available  funds 
necessarily  limit  the  number  of  subjects  that  can  be  taught 
successfully;  and  limited  funds  restrain  the  introduction  of 
courses  requiring  expensive  equipment,  effecting  especially  some 
of  the  newer  subjects  that  require  laboratory  methods  for  their 
effective  handling.  This  practical  knowledge  respecting  avail- 
able funds  can  usually  be  obtained  with  little  trouble. 

m 

The  careful  student  of  secondary  education  that  undertakes 
to  construct  a  curriculum  naturally  hopes  to  be  guided  in  his 
difficult  task  by  the  purpose,  scope,  and  function  of  the  high, 
school,  as  conceived  by  the  highest  authorities  of  his  day;  but 
here  he  is  confused  and  perplexed  by  the  most  diverse  views 
and  doctrines  concerning  all  these.  This  disturbing  diversity 
of  opinion  is  readily  explained:  it  grows  out  of  the  past  history 
of  the  high  school  and  the  new  demands  by  which  the  present 
school  has  been  almost  swamped.  Secondary  education  has 
meant  different  things  in  different  countries  and  to  different 
ages;  and  this  in  turn  is  explained  by  the  many  divergencies 
in  social  life,  to  which  the  school  has  generally  ministered  as 
it  has  understood  the  demands  of  this  life.  Thus  it  is 
that  we  have  in  the  high  school  of  the  present  a  conglomerate 


l84  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

of  the  various  and  frequently  divergent  ideas  and  practices  of 
the  past.  Each  step  in  the  development  of  the  high  school 
has  given  rise  to  its  problems,  which  have  not  always  been  wisely 
and  completely  solved,  and  these  are  included  in  the  present 
complex  situation.  However,  although  nearly  all  the  factors 
of  the  past  are  present  and  more  or  less  operative,  educational 
tradition  in  the  form  of  oft-repeated  dogma  is  fast  losing  its 
hold  in  theory  and  occasionally  in  practice;  and  this,  too,  is 
disturbing  to  some.  Again,  the  urgent  demand  for  universal 
secondary  education  has  radically  modified  the  purpose,  scope, 
and  function  of  the  schools;  the  high  school  or  academy  that 
met  the  needs  of  the  youths  from  the  well-to-do,  intellectual 
families  and  aided  in  preparing  them  for  college  or  for  a  pro- 
fessional education  could  not  be  expected  to  measure  up  to 
the  varying  demands  of  the  present,  to  state  the  case  in  the 
extreme.  This  is  truly  a  transitional  period,  and  the  profound 
changes  incident  are  exceedingly  disconcerting. 

Not  only  must  the  high  schools  of  today  appeal  to  the  in- 
terests and  meet  the  needs  of  their  greatly  increased  and  varied 
constituency,  but  they  have  assumed  much  added  responsibil- 
ity in  the  matter  of  social  training,  moral  development,  and 
physical  efficiency,  an  enhanced  responsibility  due  to  changed 
scope  and  function.  During  the  past  fifty  years,  social,  in- 
dustrial, and  economic  arrangements  and  conditions  have  be- 
come extremely  complex,  consequently  the  needs  of  society 
have  become  extremely  varied  and  exacting;  and  the  schools 
are  trying  in  many  places  to  respond  to  new  and  difficult  de- 
mands. 

Thus  the  strangely  mixed  elements  that  have  come  down 
from  the  past,  the  greatly  increased  number  of  pupils  with  their 
immensely  varied  interests,  needs,  and  abihties,  and  the  com- 
plexity of  modern  methods  and  conditions  have  all  contributed 
to  the  difficulty  of  determining  the  purpose,  scope,  and  func- 
tion of  the  American  high  school.    Of  one  thing  we  are  certain. 


THE  CURRICULUM  185 

these  can  no  longer  be  stated  in  terms  of  any  single  factor  or 
force;  and,  because  the  purpose,  scope,  and  function  cannot 
be  readily  formulated,  it  is  difficult  to  reach  any  feeling  of  se- 
curity in  building  a  high-school  curriculum;  hence  the  curric- 
ulum must  continue  to  be  a  battleground. 

IV 

When  a  difficult  piece  of  work  is  before  one,  it  is  the  part  of 
wisdom  to  analyze  all  the  significant  phenomena  connected 
therewith.  The  first  and  most  fruitful  step  to  take  in  trying 
to  understand  any  movement  or  change  is  to  seek  out  the  causes; 
this  naturally  aids  in  discovering  the  direction  the  movement  is 
taking  and  the  probable  goal  it  will  reach.  Professor  George 
H.  Betts  of  Cornell  College,  Iowa,  has  adequately  stated  and 
discussed  the  causes.  "As  I  understand  the  great  underlying 
forces  back  of  our  changing  curriculum,  they  are  three  in  niun- 
ber:  (i)  The  reaction  from  the  disciplinary  concept  of  educa- 
tion; (2)  the  pressure  for  new  material  seeking  a  place  in  the 
curriculum;  and  (3)  the  change  from  an  individualistic  and 
aristocratic  to  a  social  and  democratic  concept  of  education." 

Professor  Betts  insists  that  "the  disciplinary  concept  of  edu- 
cation has  broken  down,"  an  opinion  to  which  nearly  all  the 
students  of  recent  educational  thought  will  readily  assent; 
it  is  true  many  of  the  supposed  disciplinary  subjects  still  re- 
main in  our  curriculums,  but  educators  are  trying  to  find  other 
reasons  for  their  retention.  While  James,  Dewey,  Thomdike, 
Bagley,  Judd,  and  the  rest  were  discussing  the  question  pro 
and  con  and  learnedly  analyzing  the  results  of  the  many  tests 
and  experiments  that  were  in  progress  with  a  view  to  arriving 
at  the  truth  in  the  matter,  the  pupils,  parents,  and  teachers 
settled  the  case  for  themselves.  "They  have  decreed  that  the 
theories  devised  by  John  Locke  and  his  followers  two  centuries 
and  more  ago  shall  give  way  to  points  of  view  more  in  accord 
with  modem  ideals  and  demands."     Professor  Betts  shows 


l86  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

that  the  public  has  spoken  decisively  in  the  matter  by  citing 
the  disappearance  of  Greek  from  the  curriculum  of  nearly  all 
high  schools,  the  rapid  falling  off  in  Latin  (fifty-one  to  thirty- 
seven  and  a  half  per  cent  in  fifteen  years),  the  tendency  to  omit 
third  semester  algebra  and  solid  geometry,  and  the  modified 
college  entrance  requirements, —  all  changes  due  to  a  waning 
faith  in  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline.  This  argument  con- 
cerning the  matter,  which  was  made  in  December,  191 6,  now 
sounds  a  little  out  of  date  and  seems  almost  unnecessary,  so 
rapidly  has  the  movement  he  discussed  developed. 

The  second  force  mentioned  by  Professor  Betts  that  tends 
to  hasten  the  evolution  that  is  transforming  the  high-school 
curriculum,  "the  pressure  of  new  material,"  is  by  no  means 
new,  as  the  history  of  the  high-school  curriculum  makes  clear. 
For  a  century  at  least  new  subjects  have  been  seeking  a  place; 
and  as  time  has  passed  the  enriching  process  has  grown  apace. 
At  first  the  classics  and  mathematics  furnished  the  bulk  of  ma- 
terial deemed  necessary  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  the  denomina- 
tional colleges  of  early  days;  then  the  other  subjects,  which 
are  now  pretty  thoroughly  established,  came  in  the  following 
order, —  (i)  history  and  literature,  (2)  modern  languages,  (3) 
the  sciences,  first  as  text-book,  afterwards  as  laboratory  sub- 
jects, (4)  manual  training,  domestic  science  and  art,  and  com- 
mercial branches,  (5)  agriculture.  The  last  two  groups  have 
taken  their  places  very  rapidly,  due  to  their  vocational  appeal. 
The  great  wealth  of  material  which  has  found  its  way  into  the 
program  of  studies  has  given  rise  to  the  problem  of  selecting 
that  which  is  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupils, 
and,  in  some  cases,  the  problem  of  attempting  to  choose  what 
seems  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  community. 

The  third  force  operating  on  the  high-school  curriculum, 
according  to  Professor  Betts,  is  nothing  less  than  an  entirely 
new  concept  of  education,  naturally  giving  rise  to  a  new  defini- 
tion of  education;   hence  this  is  more  fundamental  than  the 


THE  CURRICXFLUM 


187 


Other  two  forces  and  really  includes  the  others.  The  new  defi- 
nition of  education  has  its  origin  in  a  deeper  and  broader  un- 
derstanding of  democracy  and  has  for  its  objective  the  demand 
for  efficiency,  which  asks  "  that  every  person  shall  be  equipped 
to  render  the  fullest  service  to  society,  whatever  his  status  or 
occupation."  This  social  definition  of  education,  which  is 
gradually  being  formulated,  as  much  by  practice  as  through 
discussion  and  theorizing,  is  the  great  motor  factor  in  our 
changing  curriculum. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  these  forces  which  cause  the 
changes  are  being  brought  to  bear  on  the  curriculum  makers 
through  social  pressure  exerted  by  the  pupils,  their  parents, 
and  the  thoughtful  and  progressive  people  of  the  community. 
The  pupils  wish  and  seek  a  direct  attack  on  life  and  its  prob- 
lems: hence  they  are  not  eager  to  learn  a  dead  language  in 
order  to  get  indirect  aid  in  mastering  their  mother- tongue; 
hence  they  are  impatient  when  asked  to  learn  of  a  primitive 
civilization  which  furnishes  some  of  the  elements  of  the  civiliza- 
tion by  which  they  are  surrounded  and  which  can  be  had  at 
first  hand;  hence  they  rebel  against  studying  the  records  of 
the  ancient  peoples  of  the  earth  in  order  that  they  may  better 
judge  the  present  by  the  past  when  they  are  surrounded  by 
more  experiments  in  every  line  of  human  thought  and  action 
than  they  are  able  to  follow,  and  they  much  prefer  immediate 
experience.  Moreover,  the  young  people  of  the  present  gener- 
ation often  feel  much  confidence  in  their  own  judgment  as  to 
what  knowledge  and  skill  will  best  function  in  their  lives.  In 
all  this  the  parents  are  usually  behind  them,  and  their  influence 
is  felt  because  they  pay  the  bills.  The  progressive  members  of 
any  community,  with  or  without  children,  are  likely  to  be  in- 
fluenced only  slightly  by  educational  tradition  and  carefully 
worked-out  theories;  their  thinking  is  naturally  stimulated 
and  directed  largely  by  the  world  in  which  they  live  and  work, 
a  world  where  the  method  of  direct  approach  and  efficiency, 


l88  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

as  shown  by  actual  results,  prevails;  and  such  members  of  a 
community  usually  find  means  of  making  their  influence  felt 
in  matters  which  interest  them.  Thus  the  curriculum  changes, 
and  these  are  some  of  the  causes  which  make  it  change. 

After  causes  come  results;  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  we  are 
naturally  more  concerned  about  what  is  going  to  happen  than 
about  what  brought  it  to  pass.  The  important  and  practical 
questions  are,  whither  is  all  this  disturbance  of  our  educational 
equilibrium  and  the  consequent  readjustments  tending?  and, 
more  important  but  much  more  difficult,  will  a  point  of  vantage 
be  finally  reached  when  the  drive  has  spent  its  force?  Many 
of  our  educational  experts  are  willing  to  point  out  and  discuss 
the  present  trend  of  this  rapid  evolution,  but  he  who  would 
predict  the  end  is,  indeed,  a  man  of  courage  or  of  reckless  temer- 
ity. However,  those  who  are  charged  with  the  responsibility 
of  high-school  curriculums  cannot  await  the  passing  of  the  edu- 
cational storm;  they  must  read  the  signs  as  best  they  can  and 
act,  as  in  military  matters,  according  to  the  latest  reliable  in- 
formation. By  so  doing,  we  trust  they  will  better  serve  their 
own  communities  and  at  the  same  time  make  a  contribution 
in  the  form  of  real  experience  toward  the  solution  of  a  most 
vital  problem;  it  is  a  case  where  they  do  not  serve  "who  only 
stand  and  wait."  It  is  hoped  that  the  remainder  of  the  chapter, 
although  not  claiming  much  originality,  will  be  constructively 
helpful  to  readers  interested  in  the  curriculum  of  the  secondary 
school. 

V 

There  are  a  few  general  principles,  which  seem  to  be  funda- 
mental, that  have  emerged  from  past  discussion  and  experience. 
Whether  these  are  held  as  imperative  or  not,  they  ought  to  be 
kept  in  mind;  we  cannot  afford  to  break  entirely  with  the  past. 
Like  all  general  principles,  they  are  perhaps  too  general  when 
concisely  stated  to  have  great  direct  practical  value  as  aids  to- 
ward decisions  in  concrete  situations;   if  sound  pedagogically, 


THE   CURRICULUM  189 

they  supply  only  a  safe  major  premise,  and  it  is  always  concern- 
ing the  minor  premise  that  a  reliable  judgment  of  someone  is 
needed.  The  author  is  fully  aware  that  the  following  state- 
ments are  both  incomplete  and  open  to  criticism. 

1.  "Equal  opportunity  for  all"  has  ever  been  the  funda- 
mental concept  of  democracy;  but  this  does  not  mean,  in  our 
problem,  the  same  curriculum  for  all.  In  its  practical  work- 
ings nothing  could  be  more  undemocratic  than  to  insist  that 
all  pupils  pursue  the  same  studies  regardless  of  their  needs  and 
interests.  It  is  a  long-recognized  principle  in  economics,  that 
there  is  nothing  less  fair  than  the  equal  treatment  of  unequals. 
For  both  psychological  and  social  reasons  the  principle  holds 
in  education.  In  Part  I  of  this  book  much  emphasis  was  placed 
on  the  fact  that  adolescents  differ  strikingly  in  their  interests, 
tastes,  and  capacities;  and  the  last  chapter  showed  the  ex- 
treme differences  that  actually  exist  in  the  social  outlook  of 
the  various  natural  groups  of  high-school  pupils.  An  earnest 
effort 'to  recognize  and  meet  in  a  practical  way  individual  differ- 
ences in  interests  and  social  needs  gave  rise  to  the  elective  sys- 
tem, first  in  colleges  and  afterwards  in  high  schools.  But  this 
system  in  its  extreme  and  unrestricted  form  seems  to  be  a  thing 
of  the  past  in  both  higher  and  secondary  education;  the  aim, 
it  is  beUeved,  has  been  reached  in  safer  and  more  scientific  ways, 
as  will  appear  later.  However,  the  principle  prevails  that  an 
equal  opportunity  for  all  demands  a  recognition  of  individual 
differences  and  a  chance  for  individual  choice  of  some  kind. 

2.  The  next  principle  in  curriculum  making  is  closely  connec- 
ted with  the  first  and  emphasizes  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  first. 
In  selecting  and  arranging  the  program  of  studies,  the  vastness 
and  complexity  of  modem  industrial  and  social  organization 
must  be  duly  recognized.  The  aim  of  this  principle  is  "social 
efficiency,"  which,  according  to  Dr.  Bagley,  should  control 
the  curriculum.  The  introduction  of  this  principle  into  our 
curriculum  planning  has  resulted  in  the  estabUshment  of  our 


igo  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

numerous  "vocational"  and  "industrial"  courses,  from  which 
much  is  expected,  especially  by  the  patrons  of  the  high  schools; 
and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  so-called  practical  sub- 
jects have  come  to  stay.  An  investigation  reported  a  few- 
years  ago  by  the  late  Dr.  C.  H.  Johnston  and  covering  "fifty- 
four  high  schools  in  towns  of  over  4000  population,  representing 
practically  every  state  in  the  union,"  showed  that  out  of  a 
total  of  ninety-three  subjects  offered  by  these  schools  fifty  of 
them  were  vocational.  If  these  schools  were  studied  now,  it 
is  probable  that  a  relatively  larger  number  of  vocational  sub- 
jects would  be  found  in  their  program  of  studies;  for  the  "era 
of  curriculum  experimentation"  has  been  pronounced,  and 
there  has  been  a  strong  vocational  trend  since  this  report  was 
made.  At  any  rate,  the  principle  is  so  thoroughly  established 
that  such  a  thing  as  a  high-school  curriculum  that  completely 
ignores  industrial  and  social  demands  in  now  practically  in- 
conceivable. It  is  diflBicult  to  imagine  a  principal  or  superin- 
tendent who  has  so  entirely  escaped  the  influence  of  his  social 
and  educational  environment  as  to  be  able  to  think  such  a  curric- 
ulum; there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  real  curriculum  suspended 
in  mid  air.  Another  way  of  stating  this  principle  is  that  the 
subjects  offered  by  our  high  schools  must  be  of  such  a  charac- 
ter that  they  will  function  in  the  social  life  of  the  pupils  after 
they  leave  school,  using  social  in  its  broadest  sense.  This 
means  very  different  curriculums  for  different  individuals; 
for  endless  in  variety  are  the  callings  that  are  awaiting  them. 
Stating  it  this  way  makes  it  appear  hke  an  over-ambitious  aim 
on  the  part  of  the  schools,  yet  such  are  the  modern  demands 
as  embodied  in  this  principle  of  curriculum  making. 

3.  Another  recognized  principle  involves  the  same  idea 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  individual  development.  These 
are  some  of  the  forms  of  statement:  the  program  of  studies 
shall  be  broad  enough  to  open  up  many  opportunities;  the 
high  school  shall  be  a  place  for  testing  and  developing  all  kinds 


THE  CURJRICULUM  191 

of  capacities  and  tastes;  it  shall  not  be  possible  that  any  talent 
may  perish  by  default;  the  school  shall  render  aid  in  the  im- 
portant work  of  self -discovery;  speaking  figuratively,  the  curric- 
ulum shall  ring  many  rising-bells,  some  one  of  which  will 
sound  in  the  soul  of  every  boy  and  girl.  When  thus  formulated, 
this  guiding  principle  sounds  rather  ideal  and  visionary;  but 
no  lower  aim  will  harmonize  with  the  modern  social  definition 
of  education,  which  insists  that  the  individual  be  so  instructed 
and  trained  that  he  will  render  to  society  the  most  fruitful  ser- 
vice of  which  he  is  by  nature  capable.  This  definition  brings 
together  the  principle  under  discussion  and  the  one  preceding, 
and  it  emphasizes  the  doctrine  that  the  individual  can  render 
his  greatest  service  to  society  only  when  his  natural  talents 
have  been  discovered  and  fully  developed. 

The  two  foregoing  principles,  one  demanding  that  high- 
school  studies  function  in  the  social  life  of  the  pupil  and  the 
other  that  they  function  in  his  individual  life,  have  given  rise 
to  a  classification  of  high-school  subjects  as  practical  and  cul- 
tural, or  utilitarian  and  disciplinary;  and  the  arguments  de- 
fending the  one  or  the  other  have  during  the  past  few  years 
been  many  and  vigorously  shouted  abroad,  and  the  echoes 
have  not  entirely  died  away.  But  a  higher  philosophy  of  cur- 
riculum making  prevails,  which  reconciles  these  two  seemingly 
antagonistic  parties  by  harmonizing  their  discordant  views. 
This  bringing  together  of  the  two  divergent  concepts  of  edu- 
cation has  been  accomplished  by  a  redefining  of  the  terms  "  cul- 
ture" and  "utility."  The  traditional  idea  of  culture  implies 
considerable  familiarity  with  history  and  art,  "the  best  that 
the  world  has  known  and  said,"  according  to  Arnold,  especially 
a  knowledge  of  literature,  including  usually  one  at  least  of  the 
ancient  classical  literatures;  that  is,  culture  has  been  synon- 
ymous with  the  possession  of  certain  approved  forms  of  knowl- 
edge, the  emphasis  being  placed  on  the  results  of  intellectual 
activity.    Bagley  feels  that  the  term  has  been  associated  in 


192  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

many  minds  with  luxury  and  freedom  from  economic  cares  and 
responsibilities.  At  all  events,  culture  has  been  a  changing 
ideal,  each  age  evolving  its  own  conception  of  the  term;  hence 
our  modern  students  of  education  who  apply  new  standards  of 
^"culture"  do  no  violence  to  the  English  language.  Because  a 
word  has  been  subject  to  changes  in  meaning,  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily equivocal.  Culture  is  still  a  good  word  to  conjure  with, 
but  it  is  proposed  to  apply  to  it  a  new  measure,  one  that  is 
likely  to  be  insisted  upon  more  and  more  as  the  ideal  of  social 
,ejQ&ciency  and  service  obtains;  it  is  to  be  some  kind  of  a  prag- 
matic  test.  The  world  in  general,  as  well  as  a  certain  modern 
school  of  philosophers,  is  more  inclined  to  measure  all  things 
by  the  way  they  work;  applying  this  test  to  the  matter  under 
consideration,  the  degree  of  culture  is  determined,  not  by  the 
amount  or  kind  of  knowledge,  but  by  the  efect  produced  on 
the  life  of  the  individual  who  has  acquired  the  knowledge; 
culture  should  mean,  not  having,  but  being,  and  "by  their  fruits 
ye  shall  know  them."  This  kind  of  culture,  for  one,  may  come 
from  an  appreciative  reading  of  the  classics;  for  another,  it  may 
come  from  an  enthusiastic  devotion  to  agriculture  and  all  its 
aUied  sciences.  Culture  is  an  effect  which  may  arise  from  count- 
less different  causes;  but  it  in  turn  becomes  a  cause  when  em- 
bodied, and  this  embodied  cause  Dr.  Bagley  calls  social  efficiency. 
Utility,  too,  has  taken  on  a  new  meaning,  which  is  much  broader 
than  the  old  notion,  that  the  useful  in  education  is  that  which 
aids  one  in  earning  a  living.  Utility,  like  culture,  must  be 
judged  by  its  far-reaching  effects;  the  degree  of  utihty  must  be 
determined,  not  alone  by  the  dollars  and  cents  earned,  but 
by  the  use  that  is  made  of  these;  that  is,  by  the  amount  of 
human  satisfaction  that  results  in  the  long  run.  Thus  culture 
and  utiUty  are  both  measured  by  the  legitimate  human  wants, 
both  existence  and  cultural,  that  they  aid  in  satisfying. 

4.   The  next  principle  in  curriculum  making  emanates  from 
an  idea  that  has  developed  concerning  what  makes  for  efficiency; 


THE  CURRICULUM  193 

it  may  be  stated  in  various  ways.  It  is  often  known  as  "  the 
principle  of  continuity  of  work,"  and  implies  the  planning  of 
the  curriculum  so  that  every  pupil  must  on  graduation  know  at 
least  one  subject  well.  The  defences  of  this  doctrine  are  too 
numerous  and  have  been  too  often  stated  to  need  repetition 
here.  The  belief  that  an  attempt  to  master  one  field  of  knowl- 
edge makes  for  eflSciency  has  worked  out  in  the  high-school 
curriculum  in  the  form  of  three-  or  four-year  "majors,"  which 
provide  coherence  in  subject-matter.  These  majors  will  be 
discussed  later.  There  is  now  pretty  thorough  agreement,  that 
persistence  in  one  line  of  effort  for  a  number  of  years  is  a  gen- 
uinely educative  process,  as  distinguished  from  mere  getting  of 
information,  that  the  effect  on  the  developing  mental  powers 
is  accumulative,  that  it  aids  in  establishing  ideals  and  habits 
of  thoroughness,  which  Bagley  has  proved  may  carry  over  into 
other  fields  of  effort,  and  that  it  guards  against  forming  the 
vicious  habit  of  always  picking  and  choosing.  Perhaps  the 
strongest  reason  for  observing  the  principle  which  demands 
some  prolonged  and  sustained  effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupil 
is  the  fact  that  the  elements  in  American  life  are  now  so  numer- 
ous and  varied,  as  compared  with  early  days,  and  consequently 
so  distracting,  that  some  stabilizing  influence  is  greatly  needed 
to  counteract  the  natural  tendency  to  assume  the  touch-and- 
go  attitude  toward  life  and  its  occupations.  It  is  now  gener- 
ally held  that  the  Committee  of  Ten  overemphasized  the  doc- 
trine of  the  intensive  treatment  of  a  few  subjects;  however, 
it  certainly  is  extremely  desirable  that  our  youth  should  learn 
what  it  means  to  do  a  thing  well. 

It  may  be  well  to  add  to  the  foregoing  statement  of  principles 
a  series  of  propositions,  perhaps  not  best  classified  as  funda- 
mental principles,  but  rather  as  postulates  based  on  certain 
psychological  considerations.  They  are  as  follows:  the  pro- 
gram of  studies  shall  be  sufficiently  rich  and  varied  and  the 
different  curriculums  shall  be  so  arranged,  that  every  pupil 


194  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

will  receive  training  that  will  assure  motor  skill;  that  he  will 
form  the  habit  of  associating  the  symbol  with  the  thing  sym- 
bolized; that  he  will  be  given  much  opportunity  to  do  real, 
independent  thinking;  and  that  he  will  acquire  tastes  and  habits 
that  will  insure  the  enjoyment  of  his  leisure  time.  It  is  believed 
that  these  aspects  of  the  educative  process  are  essential,  whether 
we  are  thinking  in  terms  of  cultural  or  utilitarian  values;  they 
all  function  in  both  the  social  and  individual  life  as  it  must 
be  lived  today.  It  is  now  generally  believed  that  the  degree 
of  success  reached  in  each  of  these  forms  of  training  depends, 
perhaps,  more  upon  the  teaching  method  employed  than  upon 
the  curriculum  content;  but  there  is  a  pretty  general  agree- 
ment that  certain  subjects  are  especially  rich  in  the  possibility 
which  they  offer  for  specific  kinds  of  training;  and,  although 
studies  are  no  longer  pursued  merely  for  their  training  value, 
no  group  of  human  powers  or  fruitful  habits  must  be  allowed 
to  fail  by  default. 

VI 

Let  us  now  come  to  closer  terms  with  the  practical  phases  of 
our  general  topic,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  one  who  is 
actually  engaged  in  arranging  a  program  of  studies  for  a  partic- 
ular school. 

All  who  discuss  or  think  about  curriculiun  making  are  aware 
that  it  is  fundamentally  a  problem  dealing  with  values.  Ever 
since  the  time  that  Herbert  Spencer  so  logically  discussed  the 
question,  "What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?"  the  problem 
has  been  definitely  before  us.  Although  no  one  now  defends 
his  curriculum  of  science,  we  still  go  back  to  him  to  learn  how 
subjects  for  the  curriculum  should  be  chosen  and  how  they 
should  be  knit  together.  He  does  not  furnish  us  an  acceptable 
present-day  curriculum,  but  he  does  give  us  a  method  whereby 
we  may,  if  we  are  wise  enough  to  apply  it,  build  a  curriculimi. 
Spencer  insists  throughout  his  many  argumentatively  construe- 


THE   CURRICULUM  195 

ted  paragraphs  on  the  doctrine  of  relative  values,  which  for 
him  meant  that  all  subjects  can  be  arranged  in  a  kind  of  definite 
hierarchy.  According  to  his  way  of  reasoning,  this  fixes  the 
value  of  each  subject  relative  to  all  the  others,  giving  each  an 
absolutely  fixed  place  in  his  scale,  which  is  equivalent  to  assign- 
ing absolute  values  for  each  subject  as  measured  by  its  effects 
upon  students  in  general,  thus  ignoring  the  fundamental  fact 
of  individual  variation.  It  is  at  once  apparent  to  any  one  who 
is  doing  modern  curriculum  thinking,  keeping  in  mind  the 
varying  psychological  needs  and  social  conditions,  that  an 
absolute  value  cannot  be  assigned  to  any  subject.  The  values 
are  relative.  Curriculum  making  is,  indeed,  a  question  of 
evaluation,  but  the  values  are  determined  by  the  individual's 
interests  and  needs  as  an  adolescent  who  will  soon  face  the 
complex  social  demands  of  some  community.  These  two  fac- 
tors which  unite  in  fixing  the  value  of  a  particular  subject  for  a 
particular  pupil  do  not  operate  like  forces  in  mechanics,  pro- 
ducing a  simple  resultant;  but  they  interact  on  each  other  in 
such  a  subtile  manner  that  the  process  defies  analysis.  The 
pressure  of  the  pupil's  social  and  economic  environment  is  al- 
ways present  and  making  itself  felt,  but  his  natural  inclinations 
and  capacities  determine  in  what  manner  he  will  respond  to 
the  pressure  of  his  surroundings;  and  any  school  subject,  in- 
cluding the  method  and  spirit  of  the  teaching,  is  a  part  of  the 
pupil's  environment.  Thus,  according  to  the  modern  concept 
of  educational  values,  the  worth  of  a  course  in  stenography, 
Latin,  animal  husbandry,  dietetics,  or  bench  work  cannot  be 
ascertained  by  any  Spencerian  logic  applied  independent  of 
some  individual  boy  or  girl;  individual  psychological  needs 
and  social  outlook  are  factors  which  bid  defiance  to  any  scheme 
of  generalization,  for  in  both  there  is  a  personal  element;  and 
it  is  in  this  sense  only  that  it  is  profitable  to  discuss  the  value 
of  any  school  subject,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  only  that  subjects 
have  relative  worth. 


196  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

Since  Spencer's  day  the  curriculum  has  been  an  arena  in 
which  the  educational  philosophers  have  tried  their  mettle; 
but  nothing  seemed  to  get  settled  very  authoritatively  concern- 
ing educational  values  until  we  read  in  the  remarkable  report  of 
the  Committee  of  Ten  that  it  does  not  matter  so  much  what 
we  study  as  how  it  is  studied.  Judged  from  the  viewpoint  of 
the  present  discussion,  this  comes  nearer  the  truth,  because 
the  spirit  and  the  method  (which  constitute  the  how)  are  deter- 
mined somewhat  at  least  by  the  interests  and  social  needs  of 
the  learner.  The  Committee  of  Ten  seems  to  assume  that 
there  is  some  ideal  way,  if  it  can  be  found,  of  teaching  each 
subject  that  will  give  all  the  subjects  in  effect  equal  practical 
and  cultural  values.  Like  Spencer,  the  Committee  overlooks 
the  personal  elements  in  the  problem,  represented  by  the  in- 
terests and  needs  of  the  individual  pupil. 

The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  at  present  seems  to  be, 
that,  because,  as  we  learned  in  our  study  of  adolescence,  the 
interests  and  abilities  of  boys  and  girls  in  their  teens  differ  so 
widely,  and  because  the  social  and  economic  worlds  make  such 
varied  requirements,  due  to  the  number  and  complexity  of 
their  elements,  there  is  an  urgent  demand  for  a  rich  and  varied 
program  of  studies;  it  is  only  by  providing  this  that  we  can 
guard  against  talents  going  to  waste.  Another  implication 
appears  to  be  that  our  high-school  curriculum  must  always, 
as  we  have  found  in  another  connection,  continue  to  be  a  chang- 
ing curriculum,  because  one  of  the  factors  which  aids  in  fixing 
the  worth  of  school  studies,  namely,  the  social  factor,  will 
continue  to  change.  Hence  we  reach  the  double  conclusion,  a 
rich  and  a  changing  curriculum  for  our  secondary  schools. 

But  there  must  be  some  arrangement  by  means  of  which  the 
individual  pupil  can  select  and  appropriate  to  his  own  use  the 
parts  of  this  elaborate  educational  banquet  that  is  spread  out 
before  him  in  the  modem  program  of  studies;  to  consume  the 
whole  menu  would  require  in  some  cases  seventeen  or  eighteen 


THE   CURRICULUM  197 

years,  and  it  is  agreed  that,  with  only  a  span-long  life,  the  pupil 
should  not  spend  over  four  years  in  getting  this  part  of  his 
nourishment.  The  selective  devices  have  been  many,  and, 
like  the  Ust  of  subjects,  the  history  of  the  devices  shows  some 
interesting  changes  and  natural  developments. 

The  early  academies,  whose  very  existence  depended  upon 
a  large  attendance  secured  through  popular  approval,  found  it 
necessary  to  offer  a  rather  broad  curriculum;  but,  as  the  func- 
tion of  the  academies  and  early  high  schools  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  pretty  largely  that  of  preparing  their  pupils  for  college, 
their  curriculum  in  most  cases  narrowed  down  to  one  or  two 
"courses  of  study."  At  first  they  were  "Classical"  and 
"EngUsh;"  later  they  were  "Classical"  and  "scientific,"  one 
of  which  all  who  graduated  must  take.  These  were  pretty 
much  the  arbitrary  inventions  of  pedagogs  in  and  out  of  college. 
The  extreme  reaction  from  this  narrow  and  strictly  academic 
cvuriculum  came  in  comparatively  recent  years  when  the  "  elec- 
tive system"  came  into  vogue,  at  first  in  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities (President  Eliot  being  the  most  famous  and  vigorous 
advocate)  and  later  in  many  of  the  high  schools.  For  twenty 
years  educational  Uterature  was  crowded  with  discussions  of 
this  system.  This  was  a  serious  attempt  to  meet  the  varjdng 
individual  interests  and  needs  of  all  the  pupils.  Although  this 
elective  idea  swept  the  country,  the  more  conservative  school 
officials  ingeniously  devised  restrictions,  so  that  in  some  in- 
stances the  term  "elective"  was  really  a  bluff.  According  to 
modem  thought,  the  concept  underlying  the  elective  system 
was  correct;  yet  the  system  in  its  extreme  form  is  now  pretty 
generally  discredited,  and  both  the  colleges  and  high  schools 
have  forsaken  it  as  an  educational  ideal  which  does  not  work. 
Educators  are  again  assmning  the  responsibility  which  for  a 
while  was  shifted  by  many  schools  to  the  pupils  and  parents. 
President  Meiklejohn  once  said:  "We  let  the  student  choose 
because  we  have  no  firm  convictions  ourselves  of  what  he  should 


198  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

choose."    But  this  statement  no  longer  holds;   we  have  now 
both  convictions  and  courage. 

Since  experience  has  taught  that  it  is  better  to  modify  the 
elective  system  by  restricting  the  choice  of  subjects,  various 
regulative  schemes  of  a  somewhat  scientific  nature  have  been 
devised.  Instead  of  returning  at  once  to  some  sort  of  a  curric- 
ulum system,  various  plans  for  grouping  high-school  subjects 
according  to  their  content  have  been  worked  out,  the  pupil's 
choice  being  regulated  within  these  groups.  One  form  is  the 
"allied  group,"  which,  as  defined  by  Dr.  Johnston,  is  made  up 
of  "studies  whose  subject-matters  are  closely  related,  as  for 
example  two  or  more  courses  in  physical  science  or  biological 
science  or  agriculture."  Another  device  is  the  "sequential 
group,"  which  is  made  of  "courses  in  a  given  high-school  sub- 
ject or  closely  allied  high-school  subjects  which  are  planned  for 
certain  pupil  groups  who  are  to  continue  electing  courses  within 
this  group  through  several  different  school  years.  These  courses 
are  so  administered  and  taught  that,  because  of  the  logical 
relationship,  graded  difficulty,  and  partial  curriculum  purpose, 
each  course  implies  the  next,  credit  for  any  in  the  group  often 
being  contingent  upon  completion  of  the  group."  In  some 
schools  the  subjects  offered  are  arranged  in  allied  groups,  and  a 
certain  number  of  units  from  each  group  are  required  for  grad- 
uation, the  pupils  having  the  privilege  of  choosing  among  the 
various  subjects  of  the  group.  The  object  of  this  arrangement 
is  to  compel  the  pupils  to  plan  a  balanced  curriculum.  Like 
the  elective  system,  the  group  system  makes  it  possible  for 
each  pupil  to  have  his  own  combination  of  subjects,  but  with 
more  or  less  definite  limitations,  usually  made  clear  in  connec- 
tion with  the  printed  program  of  studies.  This  grouping  system 
has  probably  worked  better  than  the  free  elective  system.  It 
naturally  forces  more  thoughtfulness  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
and  parents  in  arranging  the  school  work;  it  tends  to  bring 
about  a  more  purposeful  choice  of  studies;  and  it  seeks  to  in- 


THE   CURRICULUM  199 

troduce  some  order  and  reason  into  the  pupils'  curriculums 
from  their  first  entrance,  instead  of  the  elective  chaos  which 
sometimes  results  from  turning  loose  immature  and  irresponsible 
pupils,  often  without  a  purpose,  to  construct  their  own  curricu- 
lums. 

But,  according  to  the  reasoning  and  experience  of  the  present 
writer,  there  is  a  surer  and  more  directly  helpful  way  of  meeting 
the  needs  of  high-school  pupils  than  by  means  of  either  the  elec- 
tive or  group  system;  and  that  is,  by  a  "curriculum  system," 
old  fashioned  as  the  name  may  sound.  As  used  here,  a  cur- 
riculum is  a  systematic  arrangement  of  subjects  the  completion 
of  which  leads  to  a  diploma.  In  a  four-year  high  school  it 
generally  represents  a  requirement  of  sixteen  units.  It  is  urged 
that  each  group  of  courses  which  constitutes  a  curriculum  of 
the  school  be  definitely  planned  to  meet  the  vocational  and 
social  needs  of  a  specific  group  of  pupils.  It  is  firmly  believed 
that  differentiated  curriculums  are  demanded  to  serve  most 
aptly  the  interests  and  needs  of  differentiated  groups  of  pupils. 
The  curriculum  system  is  a  deliberate  attempt,  as  was  the  elec- 
tive system,  to  recognize  the  individual  difference  in  tastes 
and  capacities  and  to  aid  the  individual  pupil  to  fit  completely 
into  his  niche  in  the  social  structure  for  which  he  appears  to 
be  destined.  This  plan  implies  a  serious  attempt  in  each  school 
to  classify  the  social  and  vocational  expectations  of  the  pupils; 
if  it  were  possible  to  do  this  successfully,  then  we  should  have  a 
natural  and  scientific  basis  for  grouping  the  pupils.  This 
scheme  assumes  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  general  voca- 
tional education,  but  that  definite  needs  must  be  met  in  a  more 
or  less  definite  manner.  This  assumption  precludes  the  pos- 
sibihty  of  a  curriculum,  as  the  term  is  here  used,  being  the  re- 
sult of  the  arbitrary  invention  of  some  principal  or  superin- 
tendent dexterous  in  the  manipulation  of  checker-board  schemes 
on  paper. 

Thus  far  it  may  appear  that  the  social  and  vocational  de- 


200  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

mands  of  the  time  and  the  community  are  the  main  factors 
which  justify  the  institution  of  differential  curriculums;  and 
it  is  doubtless  true,  as  Professor  Betts  asserts,  "that  he  who 
most  nearly  interprets  the  social  demands  placed  upon  edu- 
cation by  the  life  of  the  present  will  come  closest  to  finding  the 
source  of  educational  values;"  but,  as  adolescent  psychology 
teaches,  youth  is  synonymous  with  rapidly  widening  social 
interests  and  relations,  combined  with  a  consequent  growing 
feeling  of  approaching  responsibility  and  a  desire  for  a  larger 
share  in  the  world's  activities.  This  means  that  there  is, 
either  active  or  latent,  in  the  boy  or  girl  of  high-school  age  the 
psychic  conditions  favorable  to  the  consideration  of  the  various 
occupations  and  callings  into  which  the  world's  work  is  classified. 
Hence  it  would  seem  to  be  the  natural  time  to  interest  the  pupil 
in  vocational  possibilities  and  requirements  with  a  view  to  edu- 
cational guidance.  Moreover  it  turns  out  that  even  "the  so- 
cial demands  placed  upon  education"  can  be  met  to  the  fullest 
degree  only  by  giving  to  each  pupil  the  instruction  and  training 
best  suited  to  his  interests  and  capacities,  for  only  in  this  way 
will  he  be  fitted  to  render  his  highest  service  to  the  world;  and 
thus  is  harmonized  individual  and  social  needs. 

The  curriculum  system,  with  its  clearly  differentiated  groups 
of  subjects,  each  looking  toward  a  definite  profession  or  calling, 
creates  a  real  problem  at  the  outset,  which  should  be  solved  by 
the  combined  efforts  of  the  pupil,  parents,  and  school  adviser. 
The  psychological  effect  of  being  called  upon  to  make  an  early 
decision  concerning  a  four-year  curriculum  ought  to  be  whole- 
some and  stabilizing,  as  responsibility  is  generally  sobering  in 
its  influence.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  curriculum  sys- 
tem is  desirable  for  vocational,  social,  and  psychological  reas- 
ons, provided  always  that  the  system  is  so  administered  that 
the  financial  and  social  status  of  an  immature  youth  shall  not 
be  allowed  to  determine  his  future. 

How  many  curriculums  shall  there  be?    How  shall  they  be 


THE   CURRICULUM  .  20I 

constructed,  and  of  what  material?  What  proportion  of  com- 
mon elements  shall  they  contain?  These  are  questions  calling 
for  rather  definite  and  concrete  answers;  one  may  reasonably 
expect  the  answers  to  be  definite,  but  not  always  concrete,  as 
conditions  must  always  determine  and  conditions  in  this  case 
cannot  well  be  generalized. 

The  first  question  is  sensibly  answered  by  the  general  prac- 
tice prevailing  throughout  the  coimtry  in  the  schools  where 
the  system  is  in  use.  The  number  varies  from  one  curriculmn 
in  the  small,  meagerly  equipped  high  schools  to  forty  or  fifty 
rather  distinct  curriculums  found  in  the  large  cosmopolitan 
high  schools,  with  their  adequate  buildings,  complete  equipment, 
and  corps  of  highly  specialized  teachers.  A  few  years  ago  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  had  forty- two.  Because  the  local  demands  are 
sometimes  pressing,  because  school  officials  are  ambitious  for 
their  school  and  anxious  to  be  progressive,  there  has  been  a 
rather  strong  tendency  for  schools  to  undertake  the  adminis- 
tration of  a  larger  number  of  curriculums  than  the  teaching 
force  of  the  schools  or  the  resources  of  the  communities  warrant. 

In  answer  to  the  second  question,  the  best  thought  at  present 
suggests  that  each  curriculum  be  built  up  around  a  three-  or 
four-year  "major,"  which  names  and  characterizes  the  curric- 
ulum. This  major  may  be  a  single  subject,  like  a  foreign  lan- 
guage or  agriculture,  or  it  may  be  a  group  of  closely  allied  sub- 
jects, like  the  commercial  branches,  or  it  may  be  a  logically 
knit  sequential  group,  like  a  four-year  sequence  in  mathematics. 
Whatever  be  the  constitution  of  this  dominating  group  of 
courses,  its  purpose  is  to  meet,  more  or  less  directly,  the  voca- 
tional and  social  needs  of  a  particular  group  of  pupils,  so  far 
as  these  needs  can  be  anticipated.  The  type  curriculums  which 
are  described  later  illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  majors  and 
the  idea  of  differentiated  functions.  It  will  be  found  in  prac- 
tice that  these  majors,  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  foreign 
languages,  are  made  jip  largely  of  the  later  additions  to  our 


202  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

high-school  program  of  studies;  and  they  are  built  up  from  the 
courses  that  are  felt  by  the  pupils  and  the  community  to  be 
immediately  practical.  They  contain  the  materials  in  the 
curriculum  whose  worth  is  largely  fixed  by  the  relation  of  the 
individual  to  some  part  of  his  environment;  consequently 
they  furnish  a  part  of  the  pupil's  work  which  should  require 
no  artificial  motivation.  Referring  to  our  statement  of  funda- 
mental principles  of  curriculum  making,  the  major  provides 
the  subject-matter  for  prolonged  and  sustained  effort;  it  is 
that  subject  about  which  the  pupil  aims  to  "know  everything." 
The  major  is  justified  by  the  social  outlook  of  the  group  of 
pupils  who  choose  it.  But  it  also  furnishes  the  most  fruitful 
kind  of  discipline;  because  it  naturally  makes  a  strong  appeal 
to  the  vital  interests  of  the  pupils,  thus  securing  the  enthusiasm 
necessary  to  an  active  and  aggressive  attitude  toward  the  work; 
and  because  it  tends  to  establish  a  relation  between  the  pupils 
and  their  work  most  closely  resembling  conditions  outside  of 
school;  and,  as  Spencer  has  pointed  out,  faculties  are  best 
developed  through  the  performance  of  those  functions  and  du- 
ties which  the  conditions  of  life  require.  The  major  subject 
is  chosen  for  its  content  value,  but  the  mental  training  is  an 
exceedingly  important  accompaniment. 

Every  curriculum,  it  is  conceded  generally,  should  make 
ample  provision  for  training  in  the  oral  and  written  use  of  the 
mother  tongue  and  the  development  of  taste  for  and  apprecia- 
tion of  good  modern  literature,  both  prose  and  poetry;  this  is 
for  both  practical  and  cultural  reasons,  which  have  been  too 
often  stated  to  need  repeating  here.  No  part  of  educa/tion 
should  result  in  more  profit  and  pleasure  than  the  work  done 
in  English.  High  schools  throughout  the  country  generally 
require  from  three  to  four  years  of  this  work;  with  the  system 
here  advocated  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  work  may  well 
vary  slightly,  depending  upon  the  purpose  of  the  curriculum 
requiring  it. 


THE  CURRICULUM  203 

The  arguments  In  favor  of  a  three-  or  four-year  major  as 
the  basis  of  each  curriculum  would  seem  to  lead  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  it  would  be  pedagogical  to  devote  the  four  years  of 
the  pupil's  time  to  the  intensive  study  of  four  or  five  subjects; 
the  influence  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  led  in  this  direction. 
But  this  is  proving  too  much.  This  plan  would  entirely  ex- 
clude from  the  individual  curriculum  many  important  fields 
of  knowledge  of  which  the  pupil  must  not  remain  ignorant. 
As  Dean  Leete  of  Carnegie  Institute  epigramatically  remarks, 
"You  can't  build  an  intensive  knowledge  of  one  thing  upon  the 
extensive  ignorance  of  all  things."  It  is  pretty  well  agreed, 
both  in  theory  and  practice,  that  the  intellectual  needs  of 
the  pupil  are  more  surely  met  by  building  up  the  remainder 
of  the  sixteen  imits,  after  the  work  in  English  and  the  major  is 
provided  for,  out  of  comparatively  short  courses,  most  of  them 
not  to  exceed  a  year.  Someone  has  stated  as  an  ideal,  that 
one  should  know  "everything  about  one  thing  and  something 
about  everything,"  and  that  the  high-school  curriculum  should 
be  planned  with  this  need  of  the  pupil  in  mind.  The  second 
half  of  this  epigram  suggests  the  short  courses,  often  called 
"minors,"  of  which  we  are  speaking.  This  part  of  curriculum 
building  is  worthy  the  utmost  care  and  wisdom.  The  purposes 
of  these  minors  are  manifold.  Here  should  be  found  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  which  one  cannot  afford  to  be  ignorant,  "the 
priceless  elements  of  the  heritage  of  race  experience,"  as  Bagley 
expresses  it;  they  include  some  courses  common  to  all  curric- 
ulums.  However,  many  of  them  should  be  chosen  and  ar- 
ranged in  such  a  way  as  to  buttress  the  work  of  the  major 
study  or  group;  as,  for  instance,  chemistry  in  the  domestic 
science  curriculum,  commercial  arithmetic  in  connection  with 
accounting,  design  in  the  manual  training  and  domestic  art 
curriculums,  color  and  textiles  in  the  domestic  art  curriculum, 
Roman  history  in  the  Latin  curriculum,  and  so  on.    Among 


204  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

these  short  courses,  too,  should  be  included  the  subjects  de- 
manded for  "a  liberal  education"  and  for  citizenship,  such  as 
pertain  to  common  duties  and  responsibilities;  these  subjects 
are  sometimes  called  "constants."  They  should  represent 
nearly  every  field  of  human  knowledge;  and,  because  of  their 
scope,  they  are  well  suited  to  test  abilities  along  many  lines, 
making  a  many  sided  appeal,  and  are  broadly  suggestive  con- 
cerning the  future  work  of  the  pupil,  whether  or  not  he  enters 
higher  institutions  of  learning.  In  brief,  these  minors  pro- 
vide the  elements  of  a  well-rounded  mental  equipment. 

It  would  seem  reasonable  that  one  who  has  made  some  study 
of  adolescent  nature,  who  in  general  is  familiar  with  the  content 
of  high-school  subjects,  who  has  given  thought  to  the  demands 
of  social  and  economic  life,  and  who  is  at  least  aware  of  the 
problems  involved  in  modern  curriculum  planning,  is  more 
likely  to  construct  a  pedagogically  arranged,  closely  knit, 
and  definitely  purposeful  curriculum  than  an  immature  pupil 
thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age  who  is  just  entering  high  school 
for  the  first  time.  The  qualifications  just  mentioned  are  surely 
not  unreasonable  to  expect  of  any  principal  or  superintendent 
who  would  essay  the  task  of  making  curriculums  for  his  high 
school.  Each  differential  curriculum  should  have  a  pretty 
definite  vocational  purpose,  and  be  defendable  on  other  grounds 
than  tradition,  custom,  disciplinary  value,  character  forming 
material,  social  worth,  or  any  other  vague  and  unproved  claim. 
When  all  concerned  unite  in  choosing  one  of  the  curriculums 
such  as  are  here  proposed,  it  would  appear  that  we  are  justified 
in  expecting  that  the  pupil's  educational  welfare  will  be  more 
surely  secured  than  by  shuffling  isolated  courses,  especially  if 
childish  whims  are  allowed  to  influence  the  shuffling;  this  sys- 
tem automatically  restrains  the  vicious  manner  of  choosing 
which  the  elective  system  invites. 


THE  CURRICULUM  205 

vin 
The  following  curriculums  are  submitted,  not  as  ideals  by 
any  means,  but  as  suggestive  types,  illustrative  of  the  principles 
of  curriculum  making  proposed  in  this  chapter.  What  was  said 
earlier  in  the  chapter  concerning  the  changing  curriculum  and 
the  causes  for  its  changing  should  make  clear  why  these  efforts 
at  curriculimi  making  will  soon  appear  out  of  date.  The  reader 
will  not  expect  to  find  these  curriculums  perfectly  adapted  to 
any  particular  school.  The  name  of  each  will  make  clear  its 
proposed  vocational  function.  Each  represents  sixteen  units 
of  work. 

1.  In  an  agricultural  curriculum,  the  major  may  well  be 
composed  of  the  following  closely  allied  courses:  domestic 
animals,  animal  feeding,  crop  production,  soil  physics,  soil 
fertiUty,  orchard  and  garden,  plant  and  animal  improvement, 
farm  machinery,  and  farm  management.  Each  subject  can 
be  covered  in  about  a  semester.  The  work  in  English  composi- 
tion and  Uterature  should  be  the  same  as  in  other  curriculums. 
The  short  courses,  or  minors,  are  bench  work,  based  on  farm 
projects;  mechanical  drawing;  cement  construction;  farm 
arithmetic,  with  the  problems  all  based  on  data  drawn  from 
scientific  farming;  bookkeeping,  applied  to  farm  accounts; 
zoology,  with  the  economic  phases  emphasized;  physiology  and 
hygiene;  chemistry;  physics;  a  year  course  in  correlated  alge- 
bra and  geometry;  commercial  geography,  industrial  history, 
economics;  United  States  history  and  civics.  This  curriculum 
is  planned  for  boys  who  expect  to  take  charge  of  a  farm  or  enter 
an  agricultural  college. 

2.  The  following  allied  courses,  which  naturally  fall  into 
two  groups,  are  suggested  as  a  major  for  a  home  economics 
curriculum:  (a)  food  and  cookery,  meal  planning  and  serving, 
household  management,  household  accounts,  food  preservation, 
experimental  cookery,  dietetics,  care  and  feeding  of  infants, 
home  nursing  and  invalid  cookery,  institutional  cookery,  and 


2o6  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

laundry;  (b)  plain  sewing,  dressmaking,  millinery,  and  tex- 
tiles. Each  of  the  foregoing  groups  is  equivalent  to  two  units; 
nearly  all  the  work  requires  double  class  periods.  The  remain- 
der of  the  curriculum  is  made  up  of  the  usual  work  in  English 
and  the  following  minors:  free-hand  drawing,  color,  design, 
home  decoration,  costume  design,  elementary  physical  science, 
zoology,  physiology  and  hygiene,  botany,  correlated  mathe- 
matics, chemistry,  physics,  commercial  geography,  industrial 
history,  economics,  and  United  States  history  and  civics.  The 
course  in  physics  should  contain  very  little  mathematics  and 
much  applied  work.  The  chemistry  should  include  a  study  of 
soap  and  soap  making,  sugar  and  sugar  refining,  baking  powders 
and  their  use,  dyeing,  breakfast  foods,  milk,  jellies,  preserves, 
pickles,  and  candies.  The  major  in  this  curriculum  is  made  up 
of  subjects  which  afford  ample  opportunities  for  training  the 
eye  and  hand,  and  they  can  be  made  highly  disciplinary.  This 
is  clearly  a  home-maker's  curriculum  for  girls. 

3.  The  commercial  curriculum  may  include  the  following 
courses  in  its  major:  penmanship,  business  Enghsh,  business 
methods,  accounting  (one  year),  shorthand,  typewriting  (each 
two  years),  and  office  training.  The  usual  work  in  Enghsh 
should  extend  through  the  four  years.  The  minors  are  the  fol- 
lowing: correlated  mathematics;  commercial  arithmetic,  taken 
at  the  same  time  as  the  accounting;  elementary  physical  science-; 
zoology;  physiology  and  hygiene;  botany;  physics;  commer- 
cial geography;  industrial  history;  economics;  commercial 
law;  and  United  States  history  and  civics.  Double  class 
periods  are  needed  for  accounting.  This  curriculum  will 
probably  enroll  over  thirty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  the 
school.  Its  function  is  clearly  differentiated:  it  aims  to  fit 
pupils  directly  for  business  life  or  prepare  them  for  further 
work  in  university  schools  of  cormnerce.  This  curriculum 
should  be  open  to  both  boys  and  girls. 

4.  The  field  of  manual  training  is  so  broad  that  it  is  difficult 


THE  CURRICULUM  207 

to  select  the  courses  that  should  constitute  the  major  in  this 
curriculum;  much  depends  upon  the  possible  equipment  of 
the  school  and  the  vocational  outlook  of  the  pupils.  The  fol- 
lowing courses,  all  requiring  double  periods,  are  suggested: 
bench  work,  wood  turning,  furniture,  pattern  making,  molding 
in  soft  metals,  art  metal,  forging  (when  practical),  bookbind- 
ing, pottery,  mechanical  drawing,  machine  drawing,  and  archi- 
tectural drawing.  The  necessary  work  in  English  for  this 
curriculum  can  be  done  in  three  years.  The  minors  are  as 
follows:  algebra,  plane  geometry,  mechanics  arithmetic,  book- 
keeping (short  course),  free-hand  drawing,  design,  elementary 
physical  science,  zoology,  physiology  and  hygiene,  botany, 
physics,  commercial  geography,  industrial  history,  economics, 
United  States  history  and  civics.  This  curriculum  is  fundamen- 
tally educational  in  its  scope  and  content,  and  vocational  in 
its  methods;  it  looks  somewhat  definitely  toward  some  of 
the  mechanical  callings;  and,  if  a  semester  each  of  advanced 
algebra  and  solid  geometry  is  included,  it  should  prepare  well 
for  any  of  the  various  university  curriculums  in  engineering. 

5.  The  last  type  curriculum  to  be  submitted  corresponds 
somewhat  closely  to  the  old  "college  of  art;"  and,  as  matters 
now  stand,  it  is  recommended  for  pupils  who  expect  to  pursue 
a  letters  and  science  curriculum  in  college.  The  major  is 
made  up  of  work  in  one  or  two  of  the  foreign  languages  as  fol- 
lows: Latin  for  two,  three,  or  four  years,  including  the  authors 
usually  read  in  high  school  and  parts  of  Ovid;  a  modern  lan- 
guage for  at  least  two  years,  preferably  French  or  Spanish, 
depending  upon  the  vocational  expectations  of  the  pupil.  The 
major  may  include  from  four  to  six  years  of  foreign  language 
work,  depending  on  the  number  and  combination  of  the  courses; 
but  the  work  in  any  one  language  should  not  be  less  than  two 
years.  At  least  ten  units  should  be  required  from  other  sub- 
jects. The  work  in  English  may  vary  from  three  to  four  years. 
The  minors  are  algebra,  plane  geometry,  elementary  physical 


2o8  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

science,  zoology,  physiology  and  hygiene,  botany,  physics, 
ancient  history,  medieval  and  modern  history,  United  States 
history  and  civics,  economics,  and  free-hand  drawing.  Provision 
should  be  made  for  the  substitution  of  advanced  algebra  and 
solid  geometry  when  desired.  The  aim  of  this  curriculum  is  not 
so  directly  vocational  as  that  of  the  others.  Although  college 
requirements  are  now  viewed  as  a  species  of  impertinence, 
this  curriculum  looks  toward  college  training  or  one  of  the 
professions.  It  is  noticeably  lacking  in  opportimities  for  hand 
and  eye  training,  unless  the  sciences  are  made  to  contribute  to 
this;  but  it  is  composed  largely  of  subjects  that  have  been  fully 
organized,  with  methods  of  instruction  completely  developed. 

In  three  of  these  curriculums  correlated  mathematics,  com- 
pleted in  one  year,  takes  the  place  of  the  traditional  courses  in 
algebra  and  plane  geometry,  the  purpose  being  to  save  time  for 
the  courses  with  a  more  definite  vocational  outlook.  It  will 
be  noted  that  certain  sequential  groups  recur  among  the  con- 
stants; for  example,  commercial  geography,  industrial  history, 
and  economics,  providing  an  inductive  approach  to  economic 
laws;  zoology,  and  physiology  and  hygiene,  the  zoology  fur- 
nishing a  scientific  basis  for  the  practical  aspects  of  the  other 
subjects;  and  United  States  history  and  civics,  which  are  best 
treated  as  a  sequence.  These  sequential  groups  of  minors  are 
introduced  for  the  purpose  of  making  each  curriculum  a  fabric 
as  closely  knit  together  as  possible. 

In  addition  to  the  work  outlined  above,  it  will  be  agreed  that 
all  pupils  should  be  given  a  chance  for  training  in  music,  public 
speaking,  and  gymnasium  work.  The  training  in  vocal  music 
should  include  both  class  and  glee  club  work.  The  work  in 
expression  and  public  speaking  should  receive  attention  at 
least  once  a  week.  The  work  in  physical  education  should  be 
regular,  the  amount  depending  on  conditions.  When  practical 
the  course  in  physiology  and  hygiene,  as  well  as  the  gymnasium 
work,  should  be  given  to  the  boys  and  girls  separately. 


THE  CURRICULUM  209 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  program  of  studies  here  suggested 
makes  it  possible  easily  to  increase  the  number  of  curriculums 
by  a  more  complete  differentiation  of  the  pupil-groups:  the 
home  economics  naturally  divides  into  domestic  science  and 
domestic  art;  the  commercial,  into  accounting  and  stenography; 
the  manual  training,  wood  working  and  metal  working;  the 
foreign  language  curriculum,  into  as  many  curriculiuns  as  there 
are  languages  offered.  Many  of  the  newer  subjects,  such  as 
printing  and  salesmanship,  are  not  mentioned;  but  they  may 
well  be  included  when  conditions  favor.  The  greater  the 
number  of  curriculums,  the  more  definitely  the  school  can 
meet  the  vocational  needs  of  the  pupils. 

The  reader,  doubtless,  is  surprised  at  the  amount  of  work  in 
science  that  is  required  in  all  of  the  curriculums  submitted. 
The  author  believes  that  Dr.  C.  W.  Eliot  is  correct  in  main- 
taining that,  "the  most  important  part  of  education  has  always 
been  the  training  of  the  senses  through  which  the  best  part  of 
knowledge  comes."  "If  brain,  eye,  and  hand  are  cooperating, 
the  developing  mental  effect  is  increased;  and  the  mental  ac- 
tion and  reaction  is  stronger  still  when  eyes,  ears,  and  hands, 
and  the  whole  nervous  system,  the  memory,  and  the  discrim- 
inating judgment  are  at  work  together."  It  would  seem  that 
work  in  the  sciences,  when  they  are  taught  concretely  and  in- 
ductively, is  one  of  the  surest  means  that  we  have  yet  discovered 
for  giving  this  all-important  training  in  the  correlation  of  eye, 
hand,  and  brain.  Moreover,  judging  the  sciences  by  the  mar- 
velous results  that  their  application  has  produced  during  the 
past  fifty  years,  one  is  constrained  to  beUeve  that  their  pursuit 
must  furnish  both  "fruitful  knowledge"  and  "practical  skill," 
and,  if  their  pursuit  develops  in  the  pupils  a  scientific  attitude, 
then  we  have  fulfilled  the  third  demand,  namely,  "right  atti- 
tudes," which,  according  to  Professor  BettS;  society  is  making 
upon  the  schools. 


2IO  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

IX 

There  are  a  few  points  concerning  the  administration  of  such 
a  curriculum  system  as  is  here  described  on  which  it  is  easy  to 
agree.  The  system  provides  very  definite  combinations  of 
courses  and  thus  seems  rather  rigid,  perhaps  too  much  so  in 
some  cases  to  meet  the  unforeseen  interests  and  needs  of  individ- 
ual pupils;  consequently  the  substitution  of  one  subject  for 
another  should  be  allowed  when  there  is  a  real  reason  for  such 
a  change.  In  planning  the  curriculums,  it  may,  also,  be  con- 
sidered advisable  to  add  an  element  of  flexibility  to  the  system 
by  arranging  for  a  few  alternates.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind, 
too,  that  the  assignment  of  a  pupil  to  a  particular  curriculum  is 
not  an  act  of  infallibility,  but  at  best  merely  a  diagnosis  and 
united  judgment  of  the  pupil  and  one  or  more  adults;  hence 
it  should  always  be  possible  for  a  pupil  to  change  from  one 
curriculum  to  another  without  loss  of  credits  when  it  is  be- 
lieved by  all  concerned  that  the  real  needs  of  the  pupil  will  be 
better  served  by  the  change.  There  are  other  elements  of  flex- 
ibility that  some  administrators  may  see  fit  to  introduce  in 
the  interest  of  individual  differences.  For  strong  pedagogical 
reasons,  each  subject  should  be  held  pretty  definitely  to  its 
assigned  year;  that  is,  there  should  be  little  mixing  of  the  pu- 
pils of  different  grades  in  the  same  class.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
noted  that  the  curriculum  system  greatly  facilitates  the  arrange- 
ing  of  the  daily  program  of  classes,  since  it  gives  rise  to  a  definite 
grouping  of  the  entire  school,  the  size  of  the  groups  correspond- 
ing to  the  number  enrolled  in  the  various  curriculums. 

Who  should  make  the  curriculimi  of  the  high  school?  A 
questionnaire  covering  the  entire  country  would  show  that, 
with  a  very  few  exceptions,  it  is  either  the  principal  or  the  super- 
intendent, working  in  his  isolated  wisdom,  who  determines 
both  the  content  of  the  program  of  studies  and  the  grouping 
of  the  courses  in  the  various  curriculums.  Perhaps  this  part 
of  our  educational  procedure,  like  many  other  aspects  of  our 


THE   CURRICXJLUM  211 

school  systems,  is  a  remnant  of  the  natural  way  of  settling 
matters  when  the  principal  owned  the  school  or  academy. 
If  our  ideals  of  democracy  are  to  be  reflected  in  the  manage- 
ment of  our  high  schools,  and  if  the  professional  intelligence 
of  our  many  specifically  trained  teachers  is  to  be  capitalized, 
there  must  be  faculty  cooperation  based  on  a  measure  of  real 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  all  the  members  of  the  teaching 
force  that  are  competent  to  interpret,  criticize,  and  evaluate 
present-day  educational  procedure;  and  there  are  naturally  in 
every  carefully  selected  high-school  faculty  many  teachers 
with  thorough  professional  training  and  appreciative  attitudes. 
If  the  viewpoint  of  these  discussions  is  correct,  the  teachers 
who  possess  the  most  accurate  and  sympathetic  knowledge 
of  the  nature  and  needs  of  adolescents  and  who  are  most  fully 
aware  of  the  wealth  of  educational  material  available  will 
be  most  capable  of  cooperating  when  curriculum  construction 
or  revision  is  undertaken.  Each  teacher  should  know  best  the 
possibilities  of  the  curriculum  material  in  his  own  department, 
while  the  relation  of  the  parts  of  the  curriculum  and  the  com- 
binations and  sequences  of  subjects  are  best  determined  by 
the  faculty  as  a  whole  after  much  study  and  thorough  discussion. 
No  principal  or  superintendent  who  has  in  mind  only  the  wel- 
fare of  the  pupils  can  forego  the  cooperative  services  of  the 
teachers  with  their  combined  wealth  of  experience  and  knowl- 
edge. Furthermore,  no  argument  is  needed  to  convince  the 
reader  of  the  advantage  of  the  cooperative  over  the  proprietary 
method  of  dealing  with  curriculum  problems  as  to  its  bearing 
on  the  attitude  of  the  teachers  toward  the  changes  introduced. 
An  effort  has  been  made  to  show  that  the  various  needs  of 
the  community,  as  well  as  the  interests  and  aptitudes  of  the 
pupils,  will  be  most  effectively  met  by  carefully  planned  differ- 
ential curriculums  based  on  the  real  activities  of  life  rather 
than  on  predominant  subjects.  It  is  also  maintained  that  the 
curriculiun  system  permits  a  more  homogeneous  grouping  of 


212  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  pupils,  because  the  grouping  is  largely  dominated  by  their 
vocational  outlook;  both  the  administrative  and  pedagogical 
advantages  are  readily  apparent  here.  By  making  the  primary 
and  controlling  purpose  of  each  curriculum  the  training  of  the 
pupils  who  choose  it  for  some  rather  definite  place  in  their  con- 
temporary social  economy  it  is  believed  there  will  result  a  more 
highly  developed  body  of  knowledge  and  a  greater  degree  of 
skill,  judged  by  the  relation  of  this  knowledge  and  skill  to  some 
occupation  or  calling.  It  is  assumed  that  the  disciplinary  and 
cultural  needs  will  be  amply  and  effectively  cared  for  while 
the  vocational  aims  are  being  met;  it  is  believed,  also,  that 
preparation  for  citizenship,  building  up  of  the  inner  resources, 
training  for  enjoyment,  and  development  of  a  capacity  for 
appreciation  of  the  finer  things  of  life  can  be  made  to  parallel 
the  vocationally  controlled  efforts  of  the  school,  and  that 
it  is  very  important  to  the  welfare  of  the  community  and  the 
pupil  that  these  aims  should  not  be  divorced.  Those  phases 
of  education  which  look  to  the  personal  and  civic  welfare  of 
the  pupil  are  extremely  important;  they  provide  for  the  inte- 
grating function  of  education;  and  this  function  of  the  high 
school  is  secured  in  the  foregoing  curriculums  by  a  liberal  num- 
ber of  carefully  chosen  constants,  which  should  cover  the  fields 
and  be  organized  and  taught  in  the  same  way  in  all  the  curric- 
ulums. Moreover,  the  underlying  theory  of  this  chapter 
implies  that  much  personal  and  cultural  development  comes  as 
a  most  important  by-product  of  the  definitely  directed  voca- 
tional efforts  of  the  pupils.  This  seems  to  be  in  conformity 
with  fundamental  principles  of  human  economy,  which  demand, 
not  that  the  individual  be  merely  good,  but  that  he  be  good 
for  something;  people  that  are  definitely  useful  are,  not  only 
the  most  helpful  members  of  society,  but  in  general  they  en- 
joy the  greatest  measure  of  real  personal  satisfaction.  Thus, 
while  we  train  our  pupils  to  make  a  living,  we  prepare  them  to 
make  a  life. 


CHAPTER  XI 
SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES 

In  this  chapter  we  return  to  the  study  of  the  social  nature 
and  needs  of  high-school  pupils.  In  Chapter  VI  emphasis  was 
placed  on  the  social  aspects  of  adolescence,  as  a  part  of  a  com- 
plete account  of  the  psychology  of  the  period;  in  this  chapter 
the  emphasis  will  be  laid  on  the  means  of  meeting  the  social 
needs  and  supplying  the  important  training  which  the  rapidly 
unfolding  social  nature  of  adolescence  demands.  Without 
doubt  the  modern  high-school  curriculum,  as  discussed  in  the 
last  chapter,  attempts  to  appeal  to  the  vast  and  varied  inter- 
ests of  youth,  including  the  social  side  of  his  nature;  but  it  is 
especially  through  the  extra-curricular  activities  of  the  high 
school  that  we  are  able  to  make  the  most  direct  and  effective 
appeal  to  the  social  instincts  and  impulses,  and  consequently 
it  is  through  these  that  we  may  minister  most  helpfully,  as 
the  following  discussions  attempt  to  indicate.  Moreover, 
according  to  the  modern  conception  of  secondary  education, 
the  distinct  line  between  formal  education  based  on  the  curric- 
ulum and  informal  training  secured  through  the  properly  or- 
ganized and  directed  social  activities  is  gradually  to  disappear, 
and  some  form  of  integrated  education  that  will  coordinate  the 
experiences  of  the  pupils  is  the  aim  of  much  recent  educational 
effort;  in  this  way  the  school  will  be  made  more  like  life. 

As  explained  in  the  last  chapter,  all  modern  education  is 
social  education,  using  social  in  its  broadest  sense;  it  is  a  direct 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  school  to  meet  the  needs  of  society; 
or,  as  Dr.  Snedden  expresses  it,  it  is  that  "form  of  education 
the  primary  and  controlling  purpose  of  which  is  to  affect  group 

213 


214  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

activities  in  accordance  with  the  demands  of  modern  civilized 
society."  "It  is  directed  toward  the  formation  of  the  habits, 
the  development  of  appreciations,  imparting  of  knowledge, 
and  the  formation  of  the  ideals  that  underlie  effective  partici- 
pation in  group  activities,  such  as  those  of  the  home,  the  state, 
and  society  generally."  According  to  this  modern  concept  of 
education,  those  forms  which  are  called  "physical  education" 
and  "cultural  education"  make  only  indirect,  yet  very  impor- 
tant, contributions  to  the  educative  process.  It  will  be  helpful 
in  the  following  discussions  to  keep  in  mind  this  modern  notion 
of  education;  and  no  reader  of  Part  I  of  this  book  will  fail 
to  recognize  in  the  social  activities  of  the  secondary  school 
the  opportunity  par  excellent  for  all  forms  of  social  train- 
ing. 

Students  of  adolescence  have  always  been  impressed  with 
the  innate  tendency  of  both  boys  and  girls  of  this  age  to  initiate 
some  form  of  organization.  It  is  interesting  and  significant 
the  way  the  gang  spirit  of  the  preadolescent  period  gradually 
yet  rapidly  yields  to  a  strong  desire  for  organization.  We  need 
not  go  far  to  find  the  explanation  of  this  familiar  phenomenon: 
Hall  has  called  it  a  "vicarious  expression  of  the  social  instinct;" 
returning  to  the  terminology  used  in  our  description  of  the 
earlier  phases  of  the  period,  gregariousness  is  the  underl)dng 
cause;  it  is  one  of  the  forms  in  which  social  gravitation  mani- 
fests itself.  Because  of  this  adolescent  tendency,  organiza- 
tions will  be  formed  without  the  help  of  the  faculty;  this  spon- 
taneous type  of  organization,  as  Professor  Scott  suggests,  "is 
not  always  fully  conscious  of  itself,  but  it  is  none  the  less  in- 
fluential." Certain  boys  and  girls  are  looked  up  to  as  leaders 
and  around  these  some  sort  of  an  organized  group  will  develop, 
so  that  a  teacher  is  often  unconsciously  contending  with  one 
of  these  self -organized  groups  when  he  thinks  he  is  dealing  with 
an  individual.  It  would  appear  that  there  is  but  one  view  to 
take  of  this  organizing  tendency  of  youth,  and  that  is,  to  see  in 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  215 

it  great  possibilities  for  effective  control,  social  training,  and 
moral  influence. 

But  such  has  not  always  been  the  attitude  of  high-school 
faculties  toward  pupil  organizations.  There  are  perhaps  three 
distinct  policies  that  have  been  pursued  relative  to  them:  (i) 
in  some  schools  all  the  social  activities  of  the  pupils  are  domi- 
nated by  the  faculty,  and  there  are  no  real  organizations  in  the 
biological  sense  of  the  term;  (2)  sometimes  the  existence  of  pu- 
pil organizations  is  ignored  with  no  attempt  at  control;  (3) 
and  there  are  schools  in  which  the  organizations  and  the  fac- 
ulty have  learned  to  cooperate  closely. 

1.  Where  complete  faculty  control  exists,  one  may  expect 
lack  of  enthusiasm  concerning  social  matters  and  perhaps  a 
critical  attitude  toward  whatever  is,  together  with  a  sad  dearth 
of  opportunities  to  develop  initiative  and  leadership.  The 
only  claim  that  can  be  made  for  complete  faculty  domination 
is  that  this  policy  requires  less  time  and  effort  on  the  part  of 
those  responsible;  this  may  be  a  claim  but  surely  it  is  not  an 
argument. 

2.  Where  the  social  activities  are  ignored,  it  would  seem  that 
the  only  aim  of  the  school  is  to  develop  and  train  the  intellec- 
tual powers,  assuming  that  human  beings  are  pure  intellect,  or 
that  the  other  phases  of  human  nature  will  develop  sufficiently 
and  symmetrically  without  any  attention  from  the  school. 
One  need  not  be  surprised  to  find,  under  such  conditions,  that 
the  athletic  teams  engage  in  practices  that  are  decidedly  harm- 
ful to  the  individual  players  and  disgraceful  to  the  school 
which  they  represent,  and  that  fraternities  and  sororities,  with 
all  their  attendant  evils  effecting  both  members  and  school, 
are  flourishing.  We  may  be  certain  that  the  social  proclivities 
are  ever  present  and  will  surely  find  some  form  of  expres- 
sion. 

3.  The  policy  of  thorough  cooperation  in  all  the  extra-curricu- 
lar affairs,  which  are  usually  of  a  social  nature,  would  seem  to 


2l6  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

call  for  no  defense,  since  it  now  has  the  support  of  sound  peda- 
gogical principles  and  of  much  successful  experience.  If  any 
defense  is  needed,  it  is  hoped  that  sufficient  will  appear  in  the 
following  statement  of  the  functions  of  high-school  social  ac- 
tivities. 

The  function  of  such  activities  grows  out  of  two  demands; 
namely,  the  nature  of  the  adolescent,  already  referred  to,  and 
the  needs  of  the  extremely  social  life  for  which  he  is  preparing. 
The  demands  are  supported  by  our  knowledge  of  adolescent 
psychology  and  modern  sociology;  the  former  urges  that 
opportunity  be  given  for  natural  self-expression,  and  the  latter 
suggests  an  attempt  at  complete  social  adjustment.  Thus 
the  function  under  consideration  has  two  aspects:  one  sub- 
jective, involving  all  that  can  be  known  concerning  the  whole 
nature  of  youth;  and  the  other  objective,  involving  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  modern  society. 

In  our  study  of  adolescence  something  was  said  concerning 
the  secondary  sex  characters  or  manifestations  and  the  impor- 
tance to  the  welfare  of  the  individual  that  these  should  be  given 
adequate  and  safe  channels  through  which  to  flow.  When 
natural  and  wholesome  means  of  expression  for  these  secondary 
sex  instincts  are  furnished,  we  are  supplying  the  "long-cir- 
cuitings"  urged  by  Dr.  Hall  as  necessary  to  individual  safety; 
or,  in  the  language  of  Freud,  we  provide  a  means  of  sublimat- 
ing the  sex  impulses.  Thus  one  of  the  important  functions  of 
high-school  social  activities  is  to  establish  safe  and  attractive 
avenues  through  which  this  subtile  form  of  adolescent  energy 
may  find  expression.  In  the  "good  old  days,"  before  the  social 
forms  of  organization  now  common  in  the  modern  high  school 
had  found  a  place  in  our  educational  thinking  and  practice, 
the  oft-recounted  student  pranks  and  the  disgraceful  outbreaks 
of  mischief  bordering  on  crime  were  among  the  ways  that  the 
unrestrained  social  impulses  found  vent.  There  is  always 
danger  of  all  sorts  of  social  extremes,  unless  the  social  instincts 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  217 

with  their  corresponding  emotions  are  allowed  expression  in 
fitting  social  action. 

As  just  stated,  these  social  arrangements  would  seem  to  have 
a  negative  or  safety-valve  function;  but  we  may  be  sure  that 
their  function  is  also  positive  in  the  fullest  sense.  During 
infancy,  childhood,  and  preadolescence,  the  will  has  a  long 
struggle,  finding  its  way  up  through  self-discovery  and  self- 
control  to  real  comradeship;  in  early  adolescence  it  is  capable 
of  personal  loyalty,  and  in  middle  adolescence  of  self-reliance; 
finally  in  late  adolescence  must  come,  if  at  all,  leadership,  one 
of  the  will  quantities  of  which  the  world  has  always  been  greatly 
in  need.  The  only  way  to  aid  in  the  development  of  leaders 
is  to  furnish  the  opportunity  for  exercise  and  training  in  leader- 
ship; here,  as  elsewhere,  one  must  learn  to  do  by  doing.  As 
already  intimated,  leaders  will  appear  whether  or  not  there  is  a 
conscious  effort  at  social  organization;  but  these  self-appointed, 
sometimes  unconscious,  leaders  are  not  the  constitutional 
leaders  that  are  needed  in  a  democracy,  and  one  can  never 
know  in  what  direction  they  will  lead.  Hence  social  activities 
of  all  kinds  are  urgently  demanded  to  serve  as  a  training  ground 
for  safe  leadership,  the  kind  that  will  recognize  natural  and 
necessary  limits,  and  that  will  function  in  accordance  with  the 
social  will  as  expressed  by  the  laws  of  society,  instead  of  in 
accordance  with  self-will.  It  is  only  through  the  various  forms 
of  organization  that  the  school  most  effectively  brings  to  bear 
on  the  individual  the  maturing  and  sobering  effect  of  socially- 
placed  responsibility. 

But  all  cannot  be  leaders.  What  does  the  school's  organized 
efforts  yield  for  those  who  follow?  When  the  word  organiza- 
tion is  used  carefully,  it  connotes  life  and  growth;  it  suggests  a 
working  together  of  many  parts  toward  a  common  purpose; 
it  implies  an  interplay  of  forces,  social  in  this  case,  each  shaping 
the  other  while  it  is  being  shaped.  In  the  democratic  school 
organization  there  is  valuable  training  in  the  give-and-take  of 


2l8  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

life,  which  cannot  be  acquired  within  the  school  so  well  in  any 
other  way;  this  tends  to  mitigate  selfishness,  and  at  the  same 
time  develop  social  power;  in  brief,  it  is  a  splendid  place  to 
learn  to  do  "teamwork"  and  form  the  habit  of  cooperation, 
which  it  is  hoped  will  carry  over  into  community  life.  It  fur- 
nishes a  means  of  teaching  first  hand  the  relation  of  the  individ- 
ual to  society  and  society  to  the  individual;  it  may  even  give 
a  foretaste  of  the  ideals  and  joys  of  social  service. 

These  are  some  of  the  ways  in  which  social  activities  contrib- 
ute to  the  social  well-being  of  high-school  pupils;  but  there  are 
other  results.  As  Dr.  C.  A.  Perry  of  the  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion has  said,  "intellectual  growth  is  largely  conditioned  by 
the  contact  of  the  individual  with  other  individuals.  In  the 
approbation  of  the  group  lies  a  powerful  incentive  in  learning;" 
and  there  has  yet  been  found  no  more  effective  means  for  mak- 
ing the  individual  know  and  feel  the  force  of  public  opinion 
than  the  extra-class  activities  of  the  school,  in  which  the  pupil 
constantly  submits  to  the  judgment  of  the  group  and  is  thus 
stimulated  or  repressed  as  his  action  demands.  In  the  coming 
together  of  the  group  the  gregarious  instincts  are  gratified, 
and  in  the  approval  of  the  group  youthful  love  of  approbation 
is  appealed  to. 

Again,  in  these  social  activities,  which  most  nearly  simulate 
real  life,  there  is  provided  a  splendid  opportunity  for  the  ex- 
ercise and  development  of  loyalty,  one  of  the  most  pervasive 
and  the  furthest-reaching  of  the  virtues.  When  the  enthusiastic 
youth  identifies  himself  with  the  group  of  his  own  choice,  he 
is  no  longer  a  mere  individual,  but  a  member  of  a  debating 
club,  an  orchestra,  a  football  team,  or  a  play  cast;  and  he  must 
put  forth  his  best  effort  in  order  that  he  may  loyally  serve  the 
purpose  of  his  organization.  At  no  time  in  life  is  a  human  being 
so  greatly  influenced  by  loyalty  as  a  motive;  and  it  is  only  by 
the  utmost  devotion  to  the  "cause"  of  the  group  that  the  in- 
dividual can  show  his  loyalty.    It  is  interesting  and  encourag- 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  219 

ing  to  note  how  some  rather  indolent,  indifferent  pupil,  with 
seemingly  little  ability,  will  be  roused  to  successful  effort  when 
the  much  coveted  membership  in  some  group  has  been  attained; 
both  his  sense  of  pride  and  his  natural  loyalty  are  appealed 
to;  he  must  "make  good"  for  his  team  or  his  club.  He  gains 
in  the  kind  of  power  represented  by  the  purpose  of  his  organi- 
zation and  incidentally  learns  loyalty  by  being  loyal.  The 
lesson  in  loyalty  is  the  best  that  the  school  can  give  the  pupil. 

Because  a  human  being  is  a  real  unit,  an  organic  whole,  phys- 
ically, intellectually,  socially,  and  morally,  whatever  affects  the 
social  aspects  of  his  life  favorably  also  affects  all  the  other 
phases  of  his  nature  favorably,  including  especially  the  moral. 
In  fact  morality  is  simply  knowing  the  will  of  the  community  in 
matters  affecting  the  welfare  of  others,  either  directly  or  in- 
directly, and  doing  it;  it  is  knowing  and  obeying  the  social- will. 
**The  moral  life  is  the  response  that  the  individual  makes  to 
the  social  order  in  which  he  lives."  From  this  it  follows  that 
it  is  one  of  the  functions  of  the  social  activities  of  the  school 
to  furnish  this  moral  training  which  comes  from  all  kinds  of 
social  contact.  It  would  appear  that  the  Baconian  adage  which 
affirms  that  character  is  perfected  in  solitude  and  talent  in 
society  is  out  of  date;  we  have  a  new  gospel  which  proclaims 
that  character  is  perfected  and  strengthened  by  vigorous  and 
frequent  contact  with  the  will  of  others;  and  this  social  impact 
is  most  effective  when  experienced  in  a  group,  all  the  members 
of  which  are  striving  for  a  conmion  purpose.  Not  only  is  this 
the  way  character  is  built,  but  this  is  the  means  by  which  the 
individual  comes  to  know  his  own  character;  he  discovers 
himself  only  when  he  begins  to  feel  the  force  of  the  social- will, 
when  the  dynamic  force  of  his  own  social  impulses  meets  and 
learns  to  unite  and  harmonize  with  corresponding  impulses 
in  others.  It  is  only  through  vigorous  social  experiences  that 
unsocial  or  purely  individualistic  tendencies  can  be  overcome. 
The  one  who  goes  out  into  life  with  anything  capricious  or 


220  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

freakish  about  him  is  doomed  to  many  discouraging  failures  in 
spite  of  much  native  ability,  discouraging  because  the  socially 
inefl&cient  never  fully  understand  the  cause  of  their  repeated 
failures.  The  high-school  dramatic  club,  debating  society,  and 
athletic  team,  each  with  its  own  style  of  strenuous  criticism, 
coaching,  and  give-and-take,  will  aid  greatly  in  removing  the 
social  kinks. 

There  is  another  important  function  of  the  social  side  of 
high-school  life,  important  to  the  individual  as  affecting  the 
integrity  of  his  entire  development  and  important  for  the  school 
as  making  it  a  highly  desirable  place  in  which  to  live  during 
the  appointed  time;  this  function  is  to  give  recreation  and 
pleasure,  and  incidentally  to  teach  ways  of  having  wholesome 
recreation  and  pleasure  and  fix  habits  pertaining  to  these..  It 
is  a  well  established  psychological  fact  that  the  keenest  pleas- 
ure experienced  by  human  beings  is  always  in  some  way  re- 
lated to  the  activities  of  others;  and  the  amount  of  enjoyment 
is  likely  to  be  in  some  sort  of  proportion  to  the  degree  of  spon- 
taneity which  leads  to  this  relation;  thus  social  affinity,  that 
strange  subtile  force,  must  be  allowed  some  degree  of  freedom 
in  order  to  do  its  work.  Can  any  one  who  watches  sympathet- 
ically and  participates  in  the  social  activities  mentioned  later 
in  this  chapter  doubt  that  the  normal  youth  of  high-school 
age  gets  the  keenest  kind  of  pleasure  out  of  his  part?  It  is, 
also,  well  known  and  fortunate  that  the  things  which  give  zest 
to  life  and  make  it  seem  worth  living  are  the  activities  that 
are  the  most  formative  in  their  influences;  they  are  sure  to 
leave  a  "trace  on  the  brain  and  nerve."  Health  of  both  mind 
and  body  depends  on  the  proper  functioning  of  the  emotions, 
and  here  wholesome  enjoyment  easily  ranks  first  in  importance. 
Perhaps  no  one  has  seen  more  concrete  proof  of  the  relation 
between  recreation  and  conduct  than  Jane  Addams  in  her 
admirable  work  at  Hull  House;  and  she  assures  us  "  that  amuse- 
ment is  stronger  than  vice,  and  that  it  alone  can  stifle  the  lust 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  221 

for  vice."  Unfortunate,  indeed,  is  the  pupil  who  goes  through 
high  school  without  experiencing  the  joys  and  benefits  of 
friendly  association  with  his  fellow  pupils  for  some  definite  and 
worthy  purpose;  yet  this  is  always  liable  to  happen  in  the  case 
of  a  certain  retiring,  self-conscious  type  of  pupil. 

Youth  needs  many  forms  of  pleasant  social  cooperation, 
both  for  their  character-shaping  value  and  for  their  recreational 
value;  but  he  needs  them,  also,  that  he  may  get  firmly  fixed, 
before  it  is  too  late,  the  habits  of  harmless  enjoyment,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  personal  assets  that  he  can  take  with  him 
from  his  school  life.  J.  P.  Graber  urges  that  "  it  is  just  as  essen- 
tial to  a  stable  social  order  that  the  individual  should  know  how 
to  spend  his  recreational  hours  as  it  is  that  he  should  know  how 
to  spend  his  vocational  hours." 

If  properly  managed,  social  activities  provide  a  safe  channel 
for  adolescent  impulses,  give  skill  in  the  interpretation  of  social 
situations,  furnish  training  in  leadership,  help  to  form  right 
attitudes  and  habits  of  cooperation,  aid  in  developing  the  in- 
tellect, supply  a  motive  for  loyalty,  create  a  moral  atmosphere, 
and  give  real  satisfaction  and  joy.  It  is  because  these  are 
among  their  fimctions,  as  just  explained,  that  many  high-school 
principals  are  neither  passively  allowing  voluntary,  self-di- 
rected organizing  to  go  on  unheeded,  nor  arbitrarily  insisting 
on  faculty  domination;  but  they  are  assuming  the  responsibility 
which  adolescent  nature  and  the  social  demands  of  the  modern 
world  suggest.  In  many  high  schools,  where  the  modern  view- 
point is  held  and  the  modern  spirit  prevails,  much  time  and 
energy  are  devoted  to  devising  means  and  methods  for  properly 
encouraging  and  controlling  the  social  and  organizing  tenden- 
cies of  the  pupils,  in  some  schools  even  credit  toward  gradua- 
tion being  given  for  proficiency  in  social  leadership.  However, 
it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that  the  possibilities  for  so- 
cial training  have  come  to  be  appreciated  and  the  consequent 
obligation  assumed.    But,  recent  as  is  the  movement,  it  is 


222  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

an  educational  issue  that  must  now  be  squarely  faced;  the 
composite  social  life  and  the  spirit  of  the  age  must  be  reflected 
both  in  the  curriculum  and  in  the  social  activities  of  the  pupils; 
both  are  tributaries  to  the  broad  stream  of  fruitful  knowledge 
and  inherited  culture  with  which  the  modern  high  school  en- 
riches its  community.  The  subjects  of  the  curriculum  are 
made  to  suggest  methods  of  life  rather  than  treated  as  distinct 
studies;  and  the  various  organizations  of  the  school  aim  to 
embody  and  give  expression  to  high  ideals  and  noble  resolves, 
furnishing  a  training,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  become  intuitive 
and  aid  when  the  stress  and  strains  of  life  must  be  met. 

If  high-school  authorities  understand  their  responsibility  in 
these  matters  and  have  accepted  it,  what  methods  are  they 
employing  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties?  When  pupil  or- 
ganizations are  initiated  or  modified,  the  traditions  and  work 
of  the  past  are  not  to  be  ignored.  Constructive  effort  begins 
with  conditions  as  they  are  and  proceeds  gradually,  the 
results  of  each  step  suggesting  the  next.  No  ready-made 
scheme  is  forced  upon  the  pupils;  here  we  are  dealing  with 
life,  and  cut-and-dried  methods  do  not  succeed.  Even  if  the 
most  ingenious  adult  plans  could  be  made  to  work,  they  are 
not  desirable;  if  forced  upon  the  pupils,  they  kill  initiative 
and  tend  to  discourage  and  stunt  originality.  Hence  the  skil- 
ful faculty  adviser  keeps  himself  in  the  background,  allows  the 
officers  (of  which  he  is  never  one)  and  the  committees  to  make 
decisions  and  sometimes  learn  by  their  mistakes;  he  works 
mostly  by  indirect  and  suggestive  methods;  he  combines  ad- 
vice with  constitutional  liberty,  the  degree  of  freedom  and  the 
amount  of  advice  varying  by  an  inverse  ratio  as  experience  is 
gained  and  competency  is  manifested.  It  is  only  by  this 
cooperative  method  that  a  social  organization  can  work  out 
and  express  the  law  of  its  own  being,  and  unless  it  does  this 
it  is  not  a  real  organization  but  merely  an  aggregation  of  in- 
dividuals without  true  social  unity,  which  cannot  be  expected  to 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  223 

function  in  the  ways  already  described.  This  means  that  the 
pupils  must  be  in  the  game  from  the  first,  must  be  active  and 
influential  in  framing  the  constitution  and  by-laws  when  these 
are  needed,  must  create  the  pupil  sentiment  necessary  to  secure 
their  approval  and  adoption,  and  must  from  time  to  time  make 
their  needs  felt  in  shaping  the  policies  of  the  organizations. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  duty  of  the  faculty  representative 
is  to  insist  that  membership  in  his  organization  stands  for  some- 
thing really  worth  while;  unless  membership  means  some 
pretty  tangible  and  definite  advantage,  respect  for  the  organi- 
zation and  interest  in  its  activities  will  soon  be  lost;  and  this 
part  of  the  adviser's  work  also  will  be  accomplished  by  indirect 
and  suggestive  methods.  This  will  include  frank  and  open 
constructive  criticism,  this  being  part  of  the  training  in  give- 
and-take,  which  constitutes  so  much  of  life  outside  of  the 
school.  It  is  most  wholesome  when  the  opinions  and  criticisms 
of  the  adviser  can  be  given  on  terms  of  equality  and  are  entirely 
lacking  in  any  imperative  suggestion.  Throughout  his  entire 
high-school  experience  the  author  has  always  been  responsible 
for  several  organizations  and  has  never  explicitly  retained  the 
veto  power;  this  policy  he  thoroughly  believes  in  but  does  not 
urge  it  upon  others,  as  conditions  must  determine.  The  ped- 
agogy of  the  whole  matter  may  be  summed  up  as,  sympathetic 
cooperation  as  nearly  as  possible  on  terms  of  equality. 

It  is  a  question  how  the  faculty  advisers  are  to  be  selected. 
Some  high-school  teachers  are  not  well  fitted  by  nature  or 
training  to  enter  understandingly  and  sympathetically  into 
any  of  the  social  life  of  adolescents  (should  they  retain  their 
positions?),  and  some  do  not  wish  to  do  this  extra  outside  work. 
Young  people  are  much  like  certain  of  the  lower  animals;  they 
instinctively  know  their  friends  when  they  meet  them.  In 
general  it  seems  best  to  allow  each  class  and  organization  to 
choose  its  own  adviser,  the  principal  guarding  against  too  much 
being  required  of  any  one  teacher.    This  method  of  choosing 


224  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

may  be  supplemented  in  some  cases  by  the  principal's  suggest- 
ing teachers  that  are  known  to  be  experts  in  the  work  needed. 
Thus  even  the  choosing  of  an  adviser  may  be  managed  coop- 
eratively. It  is  usually  found  that  the  teachers  who  are  natu- 
rally well  qualified  for  this  social  work  enjoy  it;  there  are  many 
returns  from  this  form  of  service  when  well  rendered. 

The  qualifications  of  the  successful  adviser  are  easily  named: 
deep  interest  in  young  people  and  the  things  that  appeal  to 
them,  tact,  attractive  personality,  and  usually  some  expert 
knowledge  of  the  particular  kind  of  activity  to  be  managed; 
to  these  might  be  added  the  vision  which  sees  in  boys  and 
girls  the  future  efficient  and  agreeable  members  of  the  commu- 
nity. With  such  teachers  in  charge,  pupils  voluntarily  and 
gladly  come  for  help  and  advice,  and  control  by  the  exercise  of 
authority  is  not  necessary.  The  teachers  who  are  responsible 
for  the  various  organizations  and  social  activities  of  the  school 
naturally  constitute  an  unofficial  cabinet  of  the  principal,  to 
keep  him  informed  and  counsel  with  him  concerning  the  social 
progress  and  welfare  of  the  school.  Fortunate  are  the  teachers 
chosen  for  this  work;  theirs  is  a  delightful  task;  they  will  re- 
main young  in  spirit  by  continually  renewing  their  youth. 

The  number  and  kind  of  social  activities  and  organizations 
will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  school,  the  teachers  available 
for  the  work  of  guiding  them,  and  somewhat  upon  the  interests 
of  the  community.  The  following  are  the  organizations  that 
existed  in  a  high  school  of  about  five  hundred  pupils,  all  of 
which  were  social  in  the  wider  sense:  girls'  literary  society, 
with  two  women  of  the  faculty  chosen  by  the  society  as  ad- 
visers, and  holding  bi-weekly  meetings;  boys'  debating  club, 
with  a  man  in  charge,  and  meeting  every  week;  girls'  glee  club 
and  boys'  glee  club,  both  in  charge  of  the  teacher  of  music, 
holding  weekly  rehearsals,  and  giving  occasional  public  enter- 
tainments; orchestra,  in  charge  of  a  skilled  leader,  having  week- 
ly practices,  and  furnishing  music  for  all  public  school  functions; 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  225 

mandolin  and  guitar  club  (now  considered  out  of  fashion); 
boys'  athletic  association  and  athletic  council,  the  latter  com- 
posed of  team  captains,  coaches,  and  principal;  girls'  athletic 
association  and  council,  similar  in  organization  to  the  boys' 
association;  tennis  association,  members  paying  a  small  annual 
fee;  publishing  association,  composed  of  editors,  managers,  and 
critic  of  the  school  paper;  French  club,  in  charge  of  the  French 
teacher,  holding  monthly  meetings,  combining  social  and 
literary  activities;  science  club,  in  charge  of  two  science 
teachers  chosen  by  the  club,  its  purpose  being  to  arrange  for 
lectures  on  scientific  subjects  and  give  exhibitions  of  the 
science  work  of  the  school  to  the  patrons;  boys'  chess  club, 
which  arranged  chess  tournaments;  airplane  club,  in  charge 
of  the  head  of  the  manual  training  department,  engaged  in 
making  gliders  and  holding  contests  with  other  schools;  and 
four  class  organizations,  giving  dramatic  and  other  public 
entertainments,  and  taking  charge  of  social  affairs,  sometimes 
including  dancing. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  a  majority  of  cases  the  boys  and  girls 
were  organized  separately.  This  segregation  came  about  natu- 
rally; the  purposes  and  interests,  being  somewhat  divergent, 
led  to  separate  organizations.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the 
results  of  Dr.  H.  D.  Sheldon's  investigation,  published  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  which  proved  that  boys 
and  girls  from  ten  to  seventeen  almost  never  spontaneously 
organize  together.  This  is  in  harmony  with  what  has  already 
been  said  in  an  earlier  chapter  concerning  the  drawing  apart 
of  sexes  during  early  adolescence.  This  tendency  toward  a 
separate  organization  does  not  preclude  an  occasional  coming 
together  by  invitation,  when  one  sex  will  put  forth  its  best 
effort  in  the  presence  and  for  the  entertainment  of  the  other; 
these  "open  meetings"  give  what  Dr.  Hall  calls  "tonicity" 
to  the  work  of  both  boys  and  girls.  Further,  teachers  with 
experience  know,  as  Dr.  Sheldon  indicates,  that  "girls  are  more 


226  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

nearly  governed  by  adult  motives  than  boys,"  an  important 
point  to  keep  in  mind  when  dealing  with  the  two  sexes. 

As  the  names  of  these  organizations  suggest,  all  ejfforts  along 
social  lines  in  this  school  had  in  each  case  a  very  definite  aim; 
there  was  no  attempt  to  organize  for  purely  social  purposes 
or  merely  to  have  a  good  time.  Thus  the  social  activities  were 
planned  on  the  same  principle  as  the  high-school  program  of 
studies  described  in  the  preceding  chapter;  each  aimed  to  ac- 
complish a  particular,  concrete  thing;  the  training  in  social 
efficiency  and  the  wholesome  enjoyment  were  very  important 
by-products,  just  as  culture  and  mental  discipline  are  the  in- 
cidental results  of  the  differentiated  vocational  curriculums. 
Social  efficiency  and  culture,  like  happiness,  come  most  surely 
to  those  who  engage  whole-heartedly  in  some  form  of  useful 
activity.  Seek  first  some  definite  worthy  purpose,  "and  all 
other  things  shall  be  added  thereunto." 

Teachers  with  experience  are  aware  that  difficult  and  delicate 
problems  arise  in  connection  with  high-school  social  activities. 
Among  these  social  dancing  has  come  in  for  its  share  of  trouble. 
It  gives  rise  to  one  of  those  complex  issues  which  many  believe 
involve  considerations  affecting  the  physical,  social,  moral,  and 
even  religious  welfare  of  both  individuals  and  society.  Dancing 
is  preeminently  an  adolescent  problem  and  involves  nearly  the 
whole  psychology  of  youth.  Nearly  all  students  who  have 
gone  deeply  into  the  nature  of  adolescence  believe  dancing  to 
be  one  of  the  very  best  means  of  long-circuiting  or  sublimating 
the  sex  impulses,  a  safe  way  in  which  the  secondary  sex  charac- 
ters may  find  expression,  as  explained  in  Part  I.  This  is  the 
exact  opposite  of  the  opinion  held  by  many  who  have  not  ap- 
proached the  subject  from  a  scientific  standpoint.  Properly 
conducted  dancing,  with  its  musical  accompaniment,  is  one  of 
the  most  expressive  languages  of  the  emotions;  and,  as  Hall 
says,  tends  to  give  "nervous  poise  and  control,"  producing 
harmonv   between   feeling   and   intellect,   "inoculating   good 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  227 

States  of  mind  and  exorcising  bad  ones."  On  the  physical 
side,  it  is  an  almost  perfect  means  of  coordinating  the  basal  and 
smaller  muscles,  satisfies  "the  motor  needs  of  youth,"  and 
is  "one  of  the  best  expressions  of  pure  play;"  hence,  to  nearly 
all  who  dance  there  results  much  pleasure.  There  is  the  best 
possible  training  in  the  sense  of  rhythm;  and  "adolescence  is 
the  golden  period  of  the  nascency  of  rhythm."  There  naturally 
comes  at  this  age  a  feeling  for  "the  beauty  of  cadences."  The 
present  writer's  experience  with  high-school  dancing  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  it  affords  a  splendid  opportunity  for  pupils  to 
learn  some  of  the  habits  of  refinement  and  many  of  the  ordi- 
nary formalities  of  polite  society.  The  pupils  are  always  on  their 
best  behavior  and  are  most  courteous  in  the  dance  room.  The 
properly  managed  high-school  dance  gives  incidental  training 
in  democracy,  for  no  pupil  should  refuse  to  dance  with  another. 
The  following  sentences  from  an  editorial  in  The  Outlook 
express  the  present  author's  views:  "There  is  nothing  essen- 
tially evil  in  rhythmic  motion  to  the  accompaniment  of  mu- 
sic. To  banish  dancing  from  assemblies  under  the  control  of 
Christian  people  is  dangerous.  To  prohibit  dancing  altogether 
is  to  run  counter  to  nature,  and  is  generally  futile.  To  regulate 
dancing  under  proper  guidance  is  both  safer  and  more  practi- 
cable." It  is  worthy  of  note  that  social  settlement  workers 
have  always  found  dancing  very  helpful  in  their  work,  proving 
both  socially  and  morally  beneficial.  Like  other  attractive 
forms  of  exercise  that  harmonize  the  physical  and  mental 
powers,  school  dancing  has  great  possibilities  as  a  means  of 
training  in  future  habits  of  enjoyment.  It  would  appear  from 
the  studies  of  C.  H.  Sears  that  thirteen  or  fourteen  (a  little  later 
for  boys)  is  the  ideal  age  to  learn  to  dance  in  order  to  get  the 
greatest  educational  value  and  pleasure;  at  this  time  there 
usually  arises  a  special  interest  in  dancing,  indicating  that  cen- 
ters of  rhythm  and  cadence  are  ripening. 
Although  dancing  for  pupils  of  high-school  age  is  desirable 


228  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

for  all  the  reasons  indicated,  it  is  not  urged  indiscriminately  on 
all  responsible  for  the  welfare  of  high-school  pupils.  Local 
conditions  and  especially  local  sentiment  must  determine  what 
is  best  to  do  in  the  matter;  a  school  cannot  afford  to  run  counter 
to  the  wishes  of  a  large  percentage  of  its  patrons  and  thus  lose 
their  confidence  and  its  influence. 

If  social  dancing  is  part  of  the  training  given  by  the  school, 
there  are  a  few  matters  connected  with  it  that  must  have  the 
attention  of  some  competent  member  of  the  faculty:  if  young 
people  outside  of  the  school  are  invited,  the  invitation  list  must 
be  carefully  censored;  no  questionable  forms  of  dancing  can 
be  allowed;  there  must  be  approved  chaperons;  it  is  some- 
times well  to  provide  other  forms  of  amusement  for  pupils 
who  do  not  dance;  an  effort  should  be  made  to  teach  dancing 
to  those  who  wish  it;  and,  although  it  is  diflScult  to  bring  about 
at  an  evening  party,  it  is  very  desirable  so  to  manage  that  all 
girls  who  wish  may  feel  free  to  attend.  To  secure  the  greatest 
benefit  for  the  school,  many  of  the  teachers  must  identify 
themselves  with  the  dancing  and  encourage  it  with  their  pres- 
ence; if  they  are  able  to  join  in  the  dancing,  so  much  the  better 
for  them  and  their  influence  in  the  school,  dancing  with  the 
pupils  being  one  of  many  ways  that  they  may  prove  they  are 
human  beings  as  well  as  teachers. 

Amateur  dramatics  is  another  kind  of  social  activity  that 
brings  much  enjoyment  and  benefit,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
gives  rise  to  problems  in  high-school  management.  This  form 
of  pleasure  can  be  made  to  connect  more  closely  with  the  class 
work  of  the  school.  Like  dancing,  an  opportunity  for  dramatic 
expression  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  adolescents;  the  youth 
naturally  becomes  dramatic,  delights  in  assuming  roles  and 
poses,  and  wishes  to  try  all  forms  of  expression,  especially  when 
personalities  and  emotions  are  involved.  Few  doubt  the  edu- 
cational value  of  dramatic  presentations.  The  poet  Schiller 
says:  "The  stage  is  an  institution  combining  amusement  with 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  229 

Instruction,  rest  with  exertion,  where  no  faculty  of  the  mind 
is  overstrained,  no  pleasure  enjoyed  at  the  cost  of  the  whole." 
Dramatic  work  is  a  form  of  refined  enjoyment  that  connects 
readily  and  naturally  with  the  study  of  literature.  The  author 
has  seen  a  second  year  high-school  class  derive  much  pleasure 
from  the  dramatization  and  presentation  of  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities. 
Scenes  from  worthy  plays  can  be  presented  with  much  satis- 
faction and  profit  by  pupils  of  the  lower  classes,  and  the  two 
upper  classes  can  each  gain  much  by  giving  one  play  during 
the  school  year.  Corson  hopes  to  see  the  time  when  oral  im- 
personation will  be  the  only  examination  in  literature.  Besides 
the  intellectual  discipline  that  comes  from  serious  effort  at 
dramatic  interpretation,  acting  affords  a  splendid  opportunity 
to  develop  control  and  poise  in  the  presence  of  spectators, 
qualities  naturally  lacking,  as  we  have  seen,  in  early  adolescence. 
Planning  and  arranging  the  scenery  and  stage,  and  designing 
and  making  suitable  costumes  for  a  school  play  give  opportunity 
for  the  cooperation  of  the  art,  manual  training,  and  domestic 
art  departments.  Perhaps  the  most  helpful  function  of  high- 
school  plays  is  the  way  they  relate  the  social  life  of  the  school 
with  the  community;  if  the  play  presented  is  well  chosen,  the 
school  and  its  patrons  are  brought  together  for  relaxation  and 
amusement  on  a  high  educational  plane.  Thus  the  pedagogy  of 
adolescence  demands  that  an  opportunity  be  given  for  the 
exercise  of  the  dramatic  impulses,  and  the  school  play  is  a 
legitimate  means  of  academic  and  social  training;  but,  like  the 
other  social  affairs  of  the  school,  it  must  from  the  first  be  in 
charge  of  a  competent  adult  with  tact  and  judgment,  and,  when 
possible,  with  some  skill  in  dramatics.  Taste  must  be  shown 
in  choosing  a  simple,  unpretentious  play,  free  from  improper 
suggestiveness  and  coarseness;  the  more  fun  the  play  contains, 
the  better;  for  high-school  acting  the  humor  of  the  play 
should  depend  mainly  upon  frequent  amusing  situations,  rather 
than  upon  the  subtile  forms  of  humor.    Much  skill  and  tact 


230  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

are  needed  in  selecting  the  cast  of  characters.  This  can  be 
done  either  by  some  competent  teachers  who  know  the  tempera- 
ments of  the  candidates  and  their  ability  in  oral  expression,  or 
by  means  of  a  "  try-out "  before  the  coach  and  a  small  committee 
familiar  with  the  play  chosen.  For  apparent  reasons  this  is  a 
matter  that  cannot  well  be  left  to  the  pupils.  In  doing  the 
work  connected  with  the  presentation,  advertising,  and  sale  of 
tickets  the  services  of  as  many  pupils  as  possible  should  be 
enlisted;  it  gives  a  fine  chance  for  training  in  business  and  in 
the  habit  of  cooperation;  and  it  is  a  sure  way  of  securing  general 
interest  in  the  success  of  the  undertaking. 

When  one  takes  into  account  the  great  variety  of  habits, 
tastes,  attitudes,  ideals,  and  temperaments  represented  by  the 
pupils  of  a  public  high  school,  with  their  extreme  differences  in 
culture  and  social  training,  as  described  in  a  preceding  chapter, 
the  question  naturally  arises,  is  it  possible  or  desirable  to  hold 
the  membership  of  all  high-school  organizations  open  to  every 
pupil  in  the  school.  Most  certainly  it  is;  the  constitutional 
regulations  concerning  membership  must  be  such  that  any 
pupil  uninvited  may  seek  admission.  The  conditions  on  which 
membership  may  be  obtained  will  necessarily  vary  with  the 
function  of  the  organization  and  the  qualifications  required 
for  successful  work  in  the  organization.  The  deciding  author- 
ity will  sometimes  rest  with  the  faculty  expert  or  coach,  as 
in  the  case  of  membership  in  a  musical  organization  or  the 
various  athletic  teams;  sometimes  it  will  rest  with  a  majority 
vote  of  the  members;  and  sometimes  the  mere  paying  of  a 
nominal  initiation  fee  will  bring  membership.  But  the  way  is 
always  open  to  all  who  can  qualify,  otherwise  we  have  present 
the  chief  evil  of  the  fraternities  and  sororities,  and  the  principle 
of  democracy  is  violated.  In  general  the  high  school  is  the 
last  chance  for  the  widely  differentiated  social  groups  to  be- 
come integrated  and  to  learn  to  work  with  each  other  for  a 
coromon  and  worthy  purpose;   and  the  many  social  activities 


SOCIAL  ACTIVITIES  231 

and  organizations  of  the  modern  high  school  supply  the  strong- 
est integrating  forces  that  have  thus  far  been  devised,  because 
all  participants  are  actuated  by  a  common  and  real  motive 
and  are  anxious  for  a  common  and  real  outcome. 

The  question  also  arises,  shall  credits  be  given  for  successful 
work  in  these  extra-class  activities.  They  require  time  and 
energy;  they  indicate  real  effort  and -skill  and  sometimes  much 
ability  in  leadership;  and  they  are  admittedly  the  best  index 
to  future  success;  hence  it  is  proposed  in  some  quarters  to  allow 
certain  credits  toward  graduation.  This  is  wrong  in  principle, 
and  there  are  surely  many  practical  difficulties  that  will  occur 
to  any  high-school  administrator  of  experience.  Much  of  the 
benefit  and  pleasure  comes  from  the  spontaneous  and  voluntary 
nature  of  the  work.  We  should  early  learn  that  in  many  of 
the  affairs  of  life  it  is  the  seemingly  superfluous  and  unrewarded 
labor  and  the  willingness  to  perform  it  that  counts  most.  Em- 
erson did  not  insist  on  the  principle  of  compensation  for  the 
things  of  the  spirit.  In  the  social  life  and  organizations  of  the 
school  we  have  ready-at-hand  many  kinds  of  opportunity 
for  the  pupils  to  render  willing  and  loyal  service,  the  kind  of 
service  that  wholesome  youth  delights  in  and  for  which  it  is 
highly  important  that  we  provide  training. 

Literary  societies,  debating,  high-school  journalism,  athlet- 
ics, and  pupil  finance  will  each  be  discussed  in  separate  chap- 
ters. The  social  activities  advocated  in  this  and  the  following 
chapters  will  not  aid  greatly  in  producing  the  conscientious 
book- worm;  but,  if  the  ideas  contained  in  the  newer  education 
are  based  on  sound  adolescent  psychology,  and  if  the  scientific 
studies  and  careful  observations  thus  far  made  are  not  mis- 
leading, the  things  here  discussed  will  do  much  toward  devel- 
oping right  social  attitudes,  habits  of  cooperation,  ability  for 
leadership,  general  social  efficiency,  and  will  aid  greatly  in 
establishing  a  real  social  democracy. 


CHAPTER  XII 
LITERARY  SOCIETIES 

Adolescence  is  always  seeking  expression.  Thoughts,  emo- 
tions, and  character  are  developing,  that  evermore  publish 
themselves;  happiness  is  dependent  upon  their  finding  suitable 
outflow.  This  is  because  adolescence  is  rich  in  content,  and 
because  it  is  social  in  its  outlook.  But,  as  has  been  pointed 
out  in  a  former  chapter,  the  power  to  appreciate  naturally 
develops  more  rapidly  than  the  power  to  express;  and  the 
multitudinous  ingoing  stimuli  from  all  the  vital  and  sense  or- 
gans are  extremely  disturbing,  and  the  speech  centers  are  there- 
by thrown  out  of  function.  The  difficulty  is  greatly  enhanced 
in  many  cases  by  the  high  degree  of  self-consciousness  that 
appears  at  this  time  and  adds  to  the  mental  and  emotional 
turmoil,  making  adequate  expression  for  a  time  almost  impos- 
sible; so  youth  naturally  fails  to  "utter  the  thoughts  that  arise." 
Thus  it  would  seem  to  follow  that  every  possible  avenue  of 
expression  should  be  kept  open;  recent  studies  by  Thorndike 
and  others  have  emphasized  the  law  of  individual  variability; 
hence,  if  all  are  to  have  practice  in  expression,  a  great  diversity 
of  forms  of  expression  must  be  provided.  The  extent  to  which 
this  demand  for  many  forms  of  expression  is  met  constitutes 
one  of  the  vital  differences  between  the  modern  high  school 
and  the  high  school  of  the  last  century. 

A  glance  at  the  table  of  contents  shows  that  a  chapter  is 
devoted  to  each  of  several  forms  of  expression, —  such  as,  the 
many  social  activities,  debating,  journalism,  athletic  games, 
and  general  assembly  programs;  and  others  might  easily  be 
added.    But  experience  has  shown  that  it  is  not  practical  to 

232 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  233 

attempt  to  provide  an  organization  for  every  separate  form  of 
expression  desired;  and  provision  can  easily  be  made  for  a 
great  variety  of  work  in  general  literary  societies,  the  niunber 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  school.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  modes  of  expression  that  commonly  find  a  place  in  the 
programs  of  a  high-school  literary  society:  — 

1.  A  discussion  of  current  topics  is  always  profitable  to  the 
speaker,  and,  when  well  presented,  interesting  to  a  youthful 
audience;  the  interests  of  youth  broaden  very  rapidly  during 
the  high-school  years.  The  habit  of  studying  current  history 
will  always  be  an  asset,  and  nothing  will  stimulate  the  forma- 
tion of  this  habit  more  surely  than  an  opportunity  to  present 
the  results  of  such  study  from  a  public  platform.  This  phase 
of  the  society's  work  should  be  so  managed  as  to  encourage 
the  forming  of  independent  opinions  on  the  part  of  the  pupils, 
for  this  encourages  independent  thinking.  Concerning  the 
many  public  issues,  there  ought  to  be  much  honest  difference 
of  opinion,  and  each  member  must  expect  to  defend  his  own. 
Sometimes  this  work  on  current  events  will  take  the  form  of 
reports  on  important  public  documents  that  all  are  not  likely 
to  read,  such  as,  the  president's  messages,  treaties,  new  laws 
of  general  interest,  speeches  by  men  in  official  positions,  and 
state  and  national  legislation  that  affects  many  people.  If 
the  greatest  interest  and  most  benefits  are  to  be  secured,  the 
speaking  on  matters  of  current  history  should  be  largely  ex- 
temporary. 

2.  Several  times  during  the  school  year  a  literary  society 
may  well  place  on  its  program  reviews  of  recent  books  of  in- 
terest to  people  of  high-school  age.  The  task  of  reviewing  a 
worthy  book  should  usually  be  assigned  to  one  of  the  older 
members.  The  aim  of  the  reviewer  should  be  to  create  in  his 
hearers  either  a  desire  to  read  the  book,  or  to  give  complete 
satisfaction  with  the  knowledge  conveyed  through  the  review; 
either  purpose  may  be  gained  by  means  of  a  clear  account  of 


234  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  contents,  combined  with  the  effective  reading  of  portions 
of  the  text.  A  clear,  fair,  and  interesting  review  of  a  good  book 
is  a  rather  difficult  piece  of  literary  work,  calling  for  consider- 
able reading  experience  and  broad  views. 

3.  Less  ambitious  but  often  more  intensely  interesting  is  an 
animated  reproduction  of  a  short  story.  The  amount  of 
material  to  be  handled  and  the  narrower  range  of  interest  lend 
themselves  readily  to  a  brief  treatment.  The  interests  of  the 
society  are  usually  best  served  when  the  program  provides  for 
the  participation  of  several  members;  the  reasons  are  too 
apparent  to  need  stating.  The  short  story  with  an  excellent 
plot  or  the  one  that  portrays  an  interesting  character  makes 
a  strong  appeal  to  all  high-school  pupils,  while  a  story  with 
an  "atmosphere"  fascinates  some  of  the  older  members. 

4.  In  nearly  every  high  school  there  are  a  few  pupils  with 
real  literary  ability.  The  author  has  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  some  of  these  become  contributors  to  our  best  magazines 
and  writers  of  books  listed  among  the  best  sellers.  Such  talent 
must  not  be  allowed  to  perish  by  disuse.  Pupils  with  taste 
and  talent  are  always  pleased  to  have  an  opportunity  to  cul- 
tivate their  gifts  and  give  the  results  of  their  efforts  to  their 
fellow-pupils.  The  literary  society  furnishes  an  appreciative 
audience,  and  the  short  story  is  a  suitable  vehicle  by  means  of 
which  young  writers  may  express  themselves.  The  stories 
that  are  well  received  may  be  given  wider  recognition  in  the 
school  paper.  It  is  true  that  the  short  story  is  an  extremely 
difficult  and  delicate  form  of  Uterature;  but  the  quaUties  de- 
manded make  it  all  the  more  stimulating  to  an  ambitious  boy 
or  girl  with  hterary  tastes. 

5.  The  character  sketch  is  another  form  of  literary  effort 
well  fitted  to  the  purposes  of  a  literary  program.  This  may 
vary  in  length  from  a  single  paragraph  to  a  complete  and  fully 
developed  essay;  and  there  is  no  limit  as  to  the  people  that 
may  serve  as  subjects  —  pupils,  members  of  the  faculty,  men 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  235 

and  women  of  the  community,  literary  and  historical  figures. 
This  form  of  composition  is  both  profitable  and  interesting; 
and  it  stimulates  close  observation  and  vigorous  thinking  on 
the  part  of  the  writers.  The  name  of  the  character  portrayed 
may  be  withheld,  skill  in  description  being  tested  by  the  success 
with  which  those  listening  recognize  the  character  described. 

6.  There  are  worth  while  accomplishments  that  may  be 
cultivated  in  a  literary  society,  such  as,  the  reading  aloud  of 
poetry  (especially  by  girls),  the  effective  reciting  from  memory 
of  choice  bits  of  literature,  and  the  rendering  of  worthy  pieces 
of  oratory  by  boys.  If  this  kind  of  work  is  imdertaken,  some  one 
must  insist  on  naturalness  of  expression  as  the  aim;  no  "elo- 
cution" should  be  tolerated.  All  kinds  of  music  are  acceptable 
and  may  well  form  part  of  every  program,  giving  much  satis- 
faction to  both  musicians  and  audience.  Without  doubt  the 
form  of  expression  that  gives  the  greatest  degree  of  pleasure 
is  some  kind  of  dramatics.  Either  short  plays  and  farces 
or  scenes  from  longer  plays  may  be  presented  with  much  satis- 
faction; when  the  audience  is  confined  to  the  members  of  the 
society,  the  play  or  scene  may  be  put  on  with  only  a  httle  coach- 
ing and  simple  costuming;  screens  will  aid  in  extemporizing  a 
stage.  The  more  successful  efforts  will  naturally  find  a  place 
at  general  assembly. 

7.  Much  pleasure  and  benefit  may  be  had  from  dramatizing 
and  presenting  some  of  the  stories  studied  in  the  literature 
classes.  Parts  of  Silas  Marner  have  proved  well  suited  to 
this  purpose.  One  group  of  high-school  pupils  found  a  market 
for  their  manuscript  after  they  had  given  the  play  with  consid- 
erable success.  This  and  the  work  recommended  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  dramatic  in- 
stincts, which  usually  become  very  active  during  the  high- 
school  age. 

8.  If  sufficient  debating  is  not  otherwise  provided,  this  may 
be  made  a  feature  of  an  occasional  program,  the  question  al- 


236  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

ways  being  one  in  which  there  is  a  Hve  interest.  For  further 
discussion  of  this  form  of  expression  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  chapter  on  debating. 

9.  Literary  societies,  as  well  as  the  other  organizations, 
furnish  a  splendid  opportunity  for  training  in  parliamentary 
law,  something  that  nearly  everyone  will  need  after  leaving 
school.  It  has  been  found  profitable  occasionally  to  give 
part  of  the  program  time  to  a  vigorous  parliamentary  drill; 
usually  the  drill  is  conducted  by  a  member  of  the  faculty  who 
is  skilful  in  such  matters.  The  experience  of  the  charter  mem- 
bers of  the  society  in  framing  a  constitution  and  by-laws  is 
interesting  and  helpful  and  affords  at  the  outset  a  chance  to 
learn  parliamentary  procedure.  In  this  initial  work  the  pupils 
need  considerable  help  and  guidance. 

10.  But  all  the  forms  of  expression  thus  far  mentioned  are, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  unimportant  when  compared  with 
that  which  should  constitute  the  principal  work  of  any  literary 
society  whose  aims  are  practical.  Judging  from  over  twenty 
years'  observation  and  experience,  there  is  no  extra-curricular 
activity  more  profitable  to  a  high-school  pupil  than  carefully 
organizing  a  speech  on  any  subject  of  interest  to  the  speaker 
and  his  audience,  thinking  it  through  a  number  of  times,  and 
delivering  it  in  the  most  natural  and  effective  manner  possible. 
This  form  of  training  may  be  made  an  educational  instnunent  of 
much  potency;  it  provides  vigorous  exercise  for  the  intellec- 
tual and  emotional  faculties;  and  it  tends  to  establish  effective 
habits  of  thought  and  speech.  Vigorous  extemporary  speaking 
puts  the  speaker  on  his  mettle  as  almost  nothing  else  does;  and 
it  may  be  made  to  contribute  much  to  his  social  and  civic  edu- 
cation. 

One's  success  in  nearly  any  walk  of  life  depends  more  than  is 
generally  realized  on  clear  and  full  communication,  the  only 
sure  exception  being  the  one  who  leads  the  life  of  a  hermit. 
For  most  people  learning  to  speak  well  is  a  slow  and  frequently 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  237 

a  discouraging  process,  especially  to  speak  well  before  an  au- 
dience; but  there  is  hope  for  all  possessed  of  ordinary  mental 
endowments.  In  no  field  of  effort  is  some  degree  of  success 
more  certain.  "Whoever  goes  to  his  grave  with  bad  English 
in  his  mouth,"  Professor  G.  H.  Palmer  asserts,  "has  no  one  to 
blame  but  himself  for  the  disagreeable  taste  in  his  mouth." 
But  it  is  highly  important  that  the  practice  in  public  speaking 
should  begin  during  the  formative  years  of  youth  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  obtained;  this  for  many  reasons,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  that  effective  extemporary  speaking  de- 
pends on  the  formation  and  fixing  of  certain  complex  habits, 
habits  of  reacting  that  involve  many  elements  that  must  always 
be  coordinated.  This  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  there  must 
be  much  vigorous  and  carefully  watched  practice,  as  in  the 
case  of  any  other  art.  The  instinct  of  commimication  in  youth 
is  so  strong  that  it  is  likely  to  serve  as  a  powerful  stimulus  and 
give  real  zest  to  the  practice  whenever  a  suitable  audience  is 
provided. 

We  are  wont  to  say,  "no  effective  expression  without  clear 
and  vigorous  thinking,"  which  is  certainly  true;  but,  thought 
and  expression  are  so  closely  interrelated  and  react  so  definitely 
on  each  other,  that  we  may  well  say,  no  clear  and  vigorous 
thinking  without  some  form  of  clear  and  forceful  expression. 
Thought  kindles  the  fires  of  expression,  but  these  in  turn  set  up 
counter-currents  which  intensify  and  clarify  the  thinking.  This 
is  readily  noted  in  the  thinking  of  any  one  much  practiced  in 
vigorous  extemporary  speaking;  the  thoughts  of  a  Burke  grow 
and  fulfil  themselves  as  his  periods  proceed,  so  that  every 
sentence  and  every  paragraph  spontaneously  tends  toward  a 
natural  climax;  there  is  an  unfolding  due  to  the  interaction  of 
thought  and  expression;  the  relation  is  causal,  but  there  is  a 
continuous  interchanging  of  cause  and  effect.  The  very  act  of 
expression  sharpens  the  thinking  and  enriches  the  thought. 
Thus  extemporary  public  speaking,  which  usuahy  makes  more 


238  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

vigorous  demands  than  any  other  form  of  expression,  is  justified 
on  purely  intellectual  grounds  and  claims  a  place  as  an  educa- 
tional tool. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  perhaps  no  other  kind  of  per- 
sonal skill  or  power  is  more  durable  than  the  ability  to  give 
effective  oral  expression  to  one's  thoughts.  Instead  of  lessen- 
ing this  power,  advancing  years  often  give  rise  to  a  richer, 
fuller,  and  more  discriminating  style  of  speaking;  many  of 
the  masterpieces  of  the  world's  oratory  were  spoken  after  three 
score  and  ten  years  had  been  reached.  Youth,  beauty,  health, 
and  often  wealth  fail;  but  the  power  of  verbal  expression  is 
ours  as  long  as  the  intellect  lasts.  All  that  is  needed  to  call 
it  forth  is  a  suitable  subject  and  a  great  occasion  with  an  ex- 
pectant audience.  Youth  must  be  given  the  opportunity  and 
be  encouraged  to  lay  hold  on  the  things  that  endure. 

These  appear  to  be  some  of  the  major  reasons  why  a  high 
school  should,  through  its  literary  societies  and  in  every  other 
way,  provide  for  much  training  and  practice  in  platform  speak- 
ing. But  there  are  numerous  by-products  worthy  of  consid- 
eration, three  of  which  may  be  mentioned:  (i)  the  pupil  that 
is  frequently  called  upon  to  give  piibUc  expression  to  his  ideas 
and  beliefs  must  be  constantly  in  search  of  new  information 
and  consequently  will  accumulate  stores  of  knowledge  and 
opinions  worth  expressing;  (2)  no  better  means  has  yet  been 
found  of  enlarging  the  effective  vocabulary  of  the  high-school 
boy  or  girl,  and  everyone  who  has  listened  to  the  speech 
of  the  average  high-school  pupil  is  aware  of  the  urgent  need  of 
assistance  in  this  matter;  and  (3)  perhaps  most  important  of 
all  is  the  effect  that  successful  oral  expression  has  upon  written 
expression,  the  power  and  skill  in  oral  speech  never  failing  to 
carry  over  into  the  written  style.  During  the  past  fifteen 
years,  teachers  of  English  composition  have  become  aware  of 
this  relation  of  the  two  forms  of  discourse,  and  they  have  al- 
most unanimously  turned  to  "oral  themes"  as  the  most  effec- 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  239 

tive  means  of  giving  tone  and  spontaneity  to  the  written 
work  of  pupils;  and  all  the  recent  experiments  testing  the 
effect  of  oral  expression  on  written  expression  tend  to  prove 
the  wisdom  of  this  practice.  Much  training  in  oral  EngHsh 
has  been  found  a  sure  cure  for  bookish  English;  and  oral 
expression  naturally  stresses  the  content  rather  than  the  form, 
an  important  consideration  in  all  kinds  of  expression.  The 
findings  of  English  teachers  in  this  matter  agree  with  the 
teachings  of  Hterary  history;  Palmer  reminds  us  that  book 
times  have  been  decadent  times,  while  talking  times  have 
beon  glorious. 

The  first  consideration  relative  to  the  work  here  urged  is  the 
choice  of  subjects  upon  which  to  speak.  Recent  discussions 
and  practice  seem  to  stress  content  rather  than  form  in  all 
lines  of  high-school  English;  and  this  is  especially  important 
as  applied  to  extemporary  speaking.  Nearly  everybody  natu- 
rally speaks  with  enthusiasm  and  consequently  with  anima- 
tion on  any  topic  that  is  of  vital  interest  to  him.  Judging 
from  the  list  of  subjects  for  "essays"  found  in  the  older  books 
on  rhetoric,  this  never  seems  to  have  occurred  to  the  authors; 
or,  if  they  were  conscious  of  this  principle,  they  were  ignorant 
concerning  the  real  interests  of  boys  and  girls  of  high-school 
age.  The  subjects  suggested  were  usually  literary  or  such  as 
an  adult  with  considerable  life  experience  might  enjoy  discuss- 
ing. In  general  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  almost  any 
topic  with  real  human  interest  will  stimulate  the  young 
speaker,  provided  it  is  not  too  difficult  for  him  to  master  thor- 
oughly. Whenever  possible,  the  inexperienced  speaker  should 
choose  a  theme  relative  to  something  within  his  own  personal 
experience  or  observation.  The  effect  of  first-hand  contact 
with  any  matter  under  discussion  is  always  evident  in  public 
speakers;  their  words  have  a  truer  ring,  their  thoughts  naturally 
fall  into  a  more  effective  order,  and  the  voice  comes  forth  with 
tones  that  are  reassuring  and  convincing,    Emerson  once  said: 


240  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

"I  leam  immediately  from  any  speaker  how  much  he  has  lived, 
through  the  poverty  or  splendor  of  his  speech;"  and  again, 
"Life  is  our  dictionary."  "Only  so  much  do  I  know,  as  I  have 
lived."  The  young  speaker  cannot  well  forego  the  advantage 
in  point  of  manner  and  expression  that  comes  from  first-hand 
knowledge  and  experience,  for  so  much  depends  in  the  mastery 
of  any  art  on  a  correct  beginning.  In  this  case  it  is  all  impor- 
tant at  first  that  there  be  spontaneity,  suitable  emotional  tone, 
and  a  feeling  of  satisfaction.  Hence  the  precept  for  the  young 
speaker,  speak  concerning  those  things  of  which  you  know  per- 
sonally. The  speaker's  personal  knowledge  should  of  course  be 
enriched  by  reading  and  conversation;  for  there  should  be  no 
limit  to  his  sources  of  information,  provided  proper  credit  is 
given  and  provided  the  language  and  organization  are  original. 
The  following  rather  loose  classification  of  topics  suitable 
for  high-school  pupils  is  only  intended  to  be  suggestive;  an 
attempt  is  made  to  arrange  the  topics  according  to  the  probable 
interest  of  the  younger  speakers,  (i)  School  affairs  and  activi- 
ties. If  the  school  is  making  the  proper  appeal  to  its  pupils, 
this  group  of  subjects  clearly  stands  first  in  interest;  and  it 
has  the  advantage  of  being  always  new,  for  both  the  school 
activities  and  the  pupil-group  are  ever  changing.  When  the 
society  programs  draw  Uberally  from  this  class  of  topics,  there 
are  at  least  two  very  important  by-products,  (a)  The  dis- 
cussions are  likely  to  be  very  illuminating  to  those  in  authority 
provided  they  have  ears;  and  (b)  a  natural  means  is  furnished 
for  shaping  and  crystallizing  school  sentiment  on  many  matters 
vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  school.  As  Bagley  says,  "ideas  must 
be  emotionalized  to  serve  as  conduct  controls,"  and  public 
speaking  is  a  natural  means  to  the  desired  end,  because  based 
on  a  fundamental  instinct  and  sure  to  engender  "emotional 
force."  (2)  Social  life.  As  we  have  seen  repeatedly,  all  forms 
of  social  life  are  making  a  strong  appeal  at  this  time,  and  topics 
drawn  from  this  source  are  naturally  of  deep  interest  to  high- 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  241 

school  pupils  and  hence  stimulating  as  subjects  for  public  dis- 
cussion. Emerson  assures  us  that,  "we  have  social  strength. 
Our  affections  to  others  create  a  sort  of  vantage  or  purchase 
which  nothing  else  will  supply."  When  a  social  subject  is 
chosen  and  we  provide  an  audience  situation,  we  take  advan- 
tage of  the  strong  adolescent  social  instincts;  and  the  youth 
may  be  able  to  say  to  others  what  he  could  not  first  say  to 
himself.  This  class  of  subjects  is  very  large.  (3)  Leisure. 
'^Because  of  the  pleasant  associations,  topics  furnished  from  the 
leisure  part  of  one's  life  are  agreeable  and  interesting,  and  they 
tend  to  stimulate  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  a  speaker.  They 
have  a  gratifying  emotional  setting,  namely,  enjoyment.  The 
discussion  of  topics  of  this  kind  can  readily  be  made  to  contrib- 
ute to  the  esthetic  education  of  pupils  and  to  stimulate  the 
formation  of  habits  of  harmless  enjoyment.  (4)  Vocational 
subjects.  Young  people  of  high-school  age,  especially  boys, 
are  beginning  to  think  of  the  different  callings  with  reference  to 
their  own  likes,  dislikes,  and  natural  aptitudes;  because  of 
broadening  interests  and  budding  altruism,  they  are  thinking 
more  than  ever  before  about  the  world's  work.  The  ready 
interest  in  this  matter  has  been  clearly  apparent  in  the  many 
attempts  during  recent  years  to  give  high-school  pupils  aid  in 
choosing  a  vocation.  Determining  their  life  work  becomes 
with  some  of  the  pupils  an  affair  of  serious  moment;  what  they 
have  to  say  on  such  a  subject  is  consequently  carefully  thought 
out  and  is  likely  to  be  genuine  and  natural.  (5)  Subjects  of 
general  public  interest.  The  talk  that  high-school  pupils  hear 
concerning  current  events  begins  to  make  a  new  appeal,  con- 
sequently they  are  easily  interested  in  the  daily  newspapers 
and  the  standard  magazines,  in  which  current  history  is  re- 
corded. Topics  drawn  from  this  source  furnish  very  profitable 
subjects  for  extemporary  speaking;  and  the  range  of  subject 
matter  is  so  wide  that  the  interests  of  all  can  be  met.  Perhaps 
recent  inventions  and  discoveries  furnish  the  most  engrossing 


242  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

subjects  for  a  certain  type  of  boy.  Pupils  often  tend  to  special- 
ize on  one  line  of  inventions  or  discoveries  and  enjoy  giving  a 
series  of  speeches;  flpng  machines  furnished  one  boy  with 
subjects  for  his  part  of  the  programs  of  his  literary  society  dur- 
ing a  whole  year  (he  had  made  a  complete  biplane,  except  the 
engine) ;  another  gave  many  speeches  on  the  latest  inventions 
pertaining  to  automobiles;  both  always  spoke  with  enthusiasm 
and  animation  and  never  used  notes.  (6)  School  subjects.  Some 
of  the  high-school  subjects  are  now  so  rich  in  content  that 
they  supply  a  limitless  source  from  which  to  draw.  This  is 
especially  true  of  science,  history,  biography,  agriculture,  and 
manual  training.  This  group  of  subjects  is  placed  last  because 
they  do  not  generally  make  as  strong  an  appeal  to  high-school 
pupils  as  do  the  everyday  matters  suggested  first.  The  degree 
of  interest  in  this  class  of  subjects  depends  largely  on  the  per- 
sonality of  the  teachers  and  the  manner  of  attacking  the  sub- 
jects. As  we  should  expect,  the  use  of  topics  from  the  school 
subjects  always  reacts  favorably  on  the  regular  work  of  the 
classroom. 

The  choice  of  such  subjects  as  are  here  suggested  tends  to 
prevent  all  attempts  at  old-fashioned  oratory.  These  topics 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  the  dignified,  formal  orations  with 
which  the  ambitious  youths  of  the  old  academies  were  wont 
to  regale  their  teachers  and  admiring  parents  and  friends;  those 
stilted  and  flowery  efforts  of  the  early  time,  whose  only  effect 
seems  to  have  been  to  inculcate  artificiality  and  set  up  false 
standards,  do  not  flourish  in  an  atmosphere  of  concrete,  prac- 
tical, human,  everyday  affairs.  Among  these  less  ambitious 
topics  can  always  be  found  material  within  the  ability  of  the 
high-school  pupil.  His  speeches  need  not  lack  real  content; 
he  tends  to  express  himself  naturally  and  interestingly  concern- 
ing those  things  of  which  he  knows;  and  it  is  only  in  this  way 
that  there  can  be  ingrained  right  habits  of  thinking  and  speak- 
ing.   At  all  times  the  individual  should,  as  far  as  possible, 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  243 

live  his  own  life  and  speak  his  own  thoughts;  and,  that  public 
speeches  may  be  formative  in  their  influence,  they  must  con- 
cern those  things  which  really  touch  the  lives  of  the  speakers. 
Public  speech  naturally  generates  that  emotional  warmth  which 
tends  to  make  ideas  formative.  But  the  youthful  speaker 
must  be  aided  in  making  both  his  life  and  his  thoughts  worthy; 
and  skilful  adult  guidance  in  extemporary  speaking  will  con- 
tribute to  this  end. 

When  pupils  have  learned  to  confine  their  efforts  to  subjects 
that  really  interest  them  and  are  within  their  ability,  many  of 
the  discouraging  difficulties  are  forestalled.  As  in  other  arts, 
the  greatest  care  is  needed  during  the  initial  stages  of  the  learn- 
ing process.  However,  there  are  certain  natural  dangers  grow- 
ing out  of  an  extreme  ambition  on  the  part  of  either  the  young 
speaker  or  his  critic  to  make  sure  of  a  correct  beginning.  As 
Professor  G.  H.  Palmer  has  pointed  out,  "There  is  something 
enervating  in  conscious  care.  Necessary  as  it  is  in  shaping 
our  purposes,  if  allowed  too  direct  and  exclusive  control,  con- 
sciousness breeds  hesitation  and  feebleness.  Action  is  not 
excellent,  at  least,  imtil  spontaneous."  Neither  learner  nor 
teacher  must  expect,  or  even  seek,  absolute  correctness  in  either 
delivery  or  linguistic  form.  There  are  such  things  in  public  as 
well  as  in  private  speech  as  wholesome  blunders  when  these 
protect  us  against  the  patience-trying,  tedious,  studied  pick- 
ing-and-choosing  of  every  word  and  phrase  that  suggests  the 
pedant.  No  one  is  persuasive  or  greatly  moving  who  is  con- 
sciously fastidious  and  fussy  about  his  language  or  his  pronun- 
ciation. Oral  speech  to  be  effective  must  have  a  certain  dar- 
ing and  dash  about  it.  The  critic  can  aid  the  beginner  in  this 
matter  by  stressing  the  content  rather  than  the  form,  by  creat- 
ing as  far  as  possible  a  real  problem  or  issue,  and  by  helping  the 
learner  to  keep  in  mind  the  viewpoint  of  his  audience.  The 
youth  who  has  his  eye  on  his  subject  and  is  determined  at  any 
cost  to  carry  his  point  with  his  hearers  naturally  warms  to  his 


244  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

task  and  is  not  in  great  danger  of  being  overnice  touching 
matters  of  mere  form  and  voice. 

But  this  giving  of  the  reins  to  the  young  speaker,  as  here 
advocated,  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  allow  him  to  form 
awkward  or  distracting  habits  of  speech  or  delivery,  nor  that 
we  should  shut  our  eyes  to  his  mannerisms,  which  are  sure  to 
accompany  him  through  life  unless  some  one  is  kind  enough 
persistently  to  point  them  out.  Few  are  aware  of  their  own 
bad  habits  of  speech,  and  no  one  is  conscious  of  his  own  manner- 
isms; some  one  must  assist,  and  the  earlier  the  help  comes,  the 
more  effective  it  will  be.  Some  of  the  most  common  manner- 
isms and  awkward  habits  to  make  their  appearance  are  the 
following:  a  variety  of  meaningless  sounds  (usually  vowel 
sounds)  with  which  speakers  fill  the  pauses  between  their 
sentences,  resting  the  weight  continually  on  one  foot,  leaning 
on  some  object  that  happens  to  be  at  hand,  placing  the  hands 
in  all  sorts  of  unnatural  positions,  a  restless  movement  of  the 
eyes,  peculiar  tricks  of  inflection,  fussing  with  one's  notes  or 
other  objects.  These  tricks  and  habits  are  largely  due  to 
self-consciousness  at  the  beginning,  but,  if  not  broken  up,  they 
quickly  become  fixed  and  will  interfere  with  success.  Perhaps 
the  most  annoying  and  at  the  same  time  most  persistent  is 
the  one  first  mentioned.  It  is  surprising  how  many  people  in 
both  private  and  public  mar  their  otherwise  effective  speaking 
by  the  introduction  of  noises  (often  unpleasant  in  themselves) 
between  their  sentences  and  phrases.  The  young  speaker 
must  be  taught  to  keep  still  while  he  frames  his  next  thought; 
it  is  a  case  where  "silence  is  golden."  A  real  pause  may  give 
the  effect  of  thoughtfulness  and  deliberation  and  thus  aid  in 
securing  close  attention,  whereas  the  empty  sounds  suggest 
lack  of  preparation  and  concentration.  This  is  a  habit  or- 
mannerism  that  frequently  calls  for  vigorous  treatment  to 
knock  it  out  of  the  young  speaker.  The  other  disturbing 
tricks  and  habits  usually  disappear  when  the  speaker's  atten- 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  245 

tion  is  called  to  them  and  his  initial  embarrassment  has  been 
overcome  by  practice. 

All  this  emphasizes  the  thought  that  there  must  be  much 
practice  under  immediate  supervision.  Many  recent  experi- 
mental investigations  into  the  best  ways  of  acquiring  skill  in 
almost  any  line  support  this  principle.  In  the  author's  opin- 
ion, the  criticism  both  favorable  and  adverse  is  most  profitable 
when  given  in  the  presence  of  the  whole  society.  If  ordinary 
tact  is  used  in  emphasizing  as  many  good  qualities  as  possible, 
the  members  will  not  object  to  a  frank  and  sincere  pointing 
out  of  their  faults,  especially  when  this  has  become  an  under- 
stood "order  of  the  day."  All  good  athletic  coaches  practice 
the  open  form  of  criticism. 

Next  in  importance  to  having  something  worth  while  to  say 
comes  organization  of  ideas.  In  this  part  of  the  preparation 
all  beginners  need  help  at  times.  An  outline  or  "brief"  is 
an  almost  indispensable  mechanical  aid  to  clear  and  logical 
thinking.  If  the  work  of  the  literary  society  includes  extempo- 
rary speaking,  as  here  urged,  some  one  should  give  at  least  a 
little  instruction  in  putting  the  points  of  a  speech  in  tabular 
form;  this  part  of  the  work  should  not  stop  with  a  mere  list 
of  the  topics  to  be  treated,  but  should  include  the  arranging 
of  all  ideas  to  be  used  as  topics  and  subtopics;  that  is,  the 
written  organi2ation  should  be  completely  logical,  exhibiting 
the  main  points  and  the  degree  of  relevancy  of  the  subpoints. 
This  greatly  aids  close  and  logical  thinking,  which  in  turn  tends 
to  produce  an  eflFective  and  cogent  delivery.  The  brief  or 
notes  should  always  be  prepared  but  not  much  in  evidence 
during  the  speech.  Young  speakers  may  be  allowed  to  use 
notes  but  not  to  lean  on  them  heavily;  and  they  should  look 
forward  to  the  time  when  they  are  able  to  go  confidently  to 
the  platform  without  their  carefully  prepared  written  organiza- 
tion. This  stage  in  their  development  is  reached  after  consid- 
erable experience^  and  it  means  that  the  speech  must  be  thought 


246  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

through  many  times.  This  does  not  imply  framing  and  mem- 
orizing all  the  sentences;  the  ability  to  write,  memorize,  and 
deliver  a  speech  has  its  use,  but  the  occasions  for  extemporary 
speaking  are  much  more  numerous,  and,  from  the  standpoint 
of  utility  in  dealing  with  real  issues,  much  more  important. 

It  will  be  noted  that  nothing  equivalent  to  a  complete  course 
in  public  speaking  is  proposed.  The  training  in  extemporary 
speaking  here  suggested  as  the  chief  work  of  a  high-school  lit- 
erary society  can  be  supervised  by  any  well-educated  teacher 
who  is  interested  in  effective  oral  speaking  and  in  the  welfare 
of  high-school  pupils.  In  the  foregoing  modest  plan  it  has 
simply  been  urged  that  the  speakers  be  encouraged  to  select 
as  their  subjects  something  concrete  concerning  which  they 
have  real  interest  and  feel  that  they  can  interest  their  audience, 
that  they  make  a  vigorous  effort  to  arrange  their  ideas  in  a  log- 
ical and  effective  order,  that  they  subordinate  their  personal 
interests  to  those  of  their  hearers  by  always  having  the  view- 
point of  their  audience  in  mind,  that  they  eliminate  as  rapidly 
as  possible  all  mannerisms  and  awkward  habits  of  position  and 
delivery,  that  they  cultivate  a  clear,  persuasive,  and  animated 
manner  of  speaking,  and  that  they  have  at  all  times  the  benefit 
of  frank,  sympathetic,  tactful  criticism. 

If  a  literary  society  is  to  be  helpful  in  any  large  way  to  its 
members,  the  number  must  be  limited,  for  the  benefit  derived 
is  clearly  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  actual  practice  that 
each  member  is  able  to  get.  The  membership  should  not  ex- 
ceed twenty-five  or  thirty;  the  author's  experience  is  favorable 
to  even  a  smaller  maximum.  The  larger  the  membership,  the 
less  individual  responsibility  and  the  smaller  amount  of  time 
for  each  member  on  the  platform.  The  constitution,  by-laws, 
and  organization  should  be  very  simple.  The  business  part 
of  the  meetings  should  generally  be  brief.  Other  interests 
should  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  regular  meeting. 
Group  consciousness,  which  is  necessary  to  the  highest  efl&ciency 


LITERARY  SOCIETIES  247 

of  any  organization,  can  sometimes  be  intensified  by  an  occa- 
sional event  of  a  purely  social  nature,  such  as,  a  party,  a  hike, 
a  breakfast  together  in  the  country,  or  a  marshmallow  roast. 
Although  the  purpose  is  the  cultivation  of  skill  in  written  and 
oral  expression,  the  vitality  and  success  of  a  literary  organiza- 
tion of  any  kind  will  depend  more  than  we  are  likely  to  realize 
on  the  degree  of  social  spirit  which  permeates  all  its  activities; 
the  reasons  for  this  fact  have  frequently  appeared  in  the  earlier 
chapters. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
DEBATING 


In  our  study  of  the  physical  changes  which  form  the  basis 
of  adolescence,  we  found  that  the  brain  increases  rapidly  in 
complexity.  Many  collateral  neurons  develop,  the  extending 
fiber  processes  ramifying  the  central  nervous  system;  seemingly 
new  cells  and  brain  tracts  become  active;  especially  do  the 
higher  associative  areas  of  the  cortex  exhibit  new  energy.  Con- 
sequent upon  this  structural  development,  we  found  new 
thought  functions  appearing:  a  desire  and  capacity  for  inde- 
pendent thinking,  a  critical  attitude  toward  things  and  ideas 
that  had  always  been  taken  for  granted,  an  increasing  ability 
to  deal  with  larger  and  more  complex  ranges  of  thought,  a 
growing  enjoyment  in  the  use  of  the  reasoning  powers,  and  an 
increasing  interest  in  the  organization  of  ideas. 

However,  in  the  early  adolescent  period  we  foimd  that  the 
power  to  think  and  understand  outstrips  the  ability  to  express 
and  explain.  This  lagging  behind  of  the  power  of  expression, 
especially  in  the  boy,  gives  rise  to  embarrassment,  tending 
temporarily  toward  an  anti-social  attitude.  This  minimum 
skill  in  utterance  seems  to  be  a  case  of  instrumentalities  and 
energy  developing  faster  than  the  power  to  use  them.  But 
this  "dumb  bound"  period  of  early  adolescence  is  quickly 
followed  by  the  self-assertion  and  self-reliance  character- 
istic of  middle  adolescence  when  the  youth,  who  naturally 
enjoys  a  contest,  extends  his  efforts  to  verbal  combats;  he  is 
soon  inclined  to  lock  horns  intellectually  with  almost  any  one; 

248 


DEBATING  249 

as  Hall  says,  "disputation  is  a  higher  vent  for  the  new  zest 
for  conflict." 

At  the  same  time  these  new  intellectual  tendencies  and  powers 
appear,  the  youth,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  is  developing  larger 
social  interests  and  thinking  about  a  wider  range  of  topics  and 
tackling  larger  problems.  Now,  according  to  modern  educa- 
tional psychology,  there  is  but  one  inference  that  can  be  drawn 
from  the  above  data:  here  are  new  instincts,  tastes,  and  powers 
making  their  appearance;  they  must  be  given  a  chance  to 
function  normally  and  develop  to  their  greatest  capacity; 
they  must  not  perish  by  default;  the  pugnacious  instincts  com- 
bined with  the  new  desire  to  reason  and  argue  must  be  given 
scope  and  turned  to  account. 

To  all  of  this  there  is  pretty  general  assent.  But  disagree- 
ment begins  on  the  how.  No  one  denies  the  importance  of 
exercising  the  reasoning  and  organizing  powers  of  the  mind  on 
worthy  material;  but  with  respect  to  the  method  of  doing  this 
there  is  still  considerable  variance  of  opinion  among  the  ex- 
perts. Perhaps  the  means  that  most  definitely  divides  opin- 
ions is  the  ordinary  high-school  or  college  debate,  a  form  of 
intellectual  exertion  that  certainly  gives  much  satisfaction  to 
the  youthful  participants.  In  the  usual  debate,  the  disputant 
has  the  double  satisfaction  of  publicly  expressing  his  ideas  and 
opinions  with  reasons  and  of  attempting  to  convince  others 
to  accept  them;  it  appears  to  be  a  natural  form  of  adolescent 
self-assertion.  Yet  there  have  been  many  objections  raised 
to  debating,  especially  as  a  form  of  high-school  training.  It  is 
claimed  that,  as  these  debates  are  carried  on,  there  are  serious 
intellectual,  moral,  and  social  dangers,  in  that  the  usual  high- 
school  debating  develops  "superficiality,  insincerity,  and  un- 
moral and  anti-social  tendencies."  It  is  charged  by  thoughtful 
people  that  debating  does  not  encourage  an  impartial  study  of 
important  questions,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  it  tends  to  de- 
velop the  abiUty  and  desire  "to  talk  gUbly."    If  these  are  just 


250  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

criticisms,  then  certainly  high-school  debating  must  be  con- 
demned as  an  unwholesome  and  dangerous  method  of  exercising 
the  rapidly  evolving  reasoning  powers  of  adolescents.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  state  the  functions,  describe 
the  methods,  and  discuss  the  possible  dangers  of  high-school 
debating;  the  reader  will  judge  whether,  as  set  forth,  debating 
is  a  desirable  educational  procedure  and  worth  the  time  and 
effort  involved. 

n 

More  than  twenty  years*  experience  with  high-school  debat- 
ing, including  both  debating  clubs  and  interschool  debates, 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  intellectual  and  moral  dangers 
that  are  supposed  to  accompany  debating  do  not  obtain,  pro- 
vided the  efforts  of  the  pupils  are  skilfully  directed  by  an  adult 
who  is  enthusiastic  about  the  work  and  is  aware  of  the  evils 
to  be  avoided.  As  in  the  case  of  the  athletic  and  social  activi- 
ties of  adolescents,  the  one  in  charge  must  understand  the  na- 
ture of  the  participants  and  have  some  knowledge  of  the  thing 
to  be  done;  without  the  latter,  he  will  fail  to  be  helpful  and 
lose  the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  pupils;  without  the  for- 
mer, he  will  not  be  sure  to  avoid  the  evils  and  dangers  incident 
to  the  work.  Thus  the  whole  matter  of  eschewing  harmful 
influences  and  realizing  the  possible  benefits  here,  as  in  the 
other  activities,  is  an  affair  of  proper  management  on  the  part 
of  some  member  of  the  faculty. 

What  are  the  purposes  of  high-school  debating?  From  the 
viewpoint  of  adolescent  psychology,  as  already  intimated, 
one  of  the  purposes  is  to  exercise  and  cultivate  the  germinating 
powers  of  the  mind  at  the  right  time  in  their  development; 
otherwise,  as  Dewey  asserts,  "they  tend  to  be  transitory,  to 
die  out,  or  to  wane  in  intensity."  During  preadolescence  the 
span  of  thought  has  been  very  limited;  now  that  the  rapidly 
developing  reason  is  beginning  to  knit  the  mental  centers  into 


DEBATING  251 

a  higher  unity,  there  must  be  provided  much  material  and 
many  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  these  higher  and  broader 
powers  of  thought;  and  it  can  be  shown  that  formal  debating 
is  one  way  in  which  this  can  be  done.  This  seems  clear  when 
we  consider  what  is  involved  in  the  preparation  for  and  the 
participation  in  a  debate  on  a  worthy  subject  under  proper 
conditions. 

In  nearly  all  of  his  work  on  the  regular  subjects  of  the  cur- 
riculum as  ordinarily  managed,  the  pupil  is  told  pretty  definitely 
what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it;  this  is  what  constitutes  good  lesson 
assignments.  In  a  certain  sense  the  resulting  performance  is 
decidedly  passive.  It  is  true  that  the  pupil  is  expected  and 
under  skiKul  teaching  is  encouraged  to  think,  but  naturally 
it  is  thinking  within  definitely  prescribed  limits  and  on  definitely 
supplied  materials.  This  kind  of  training  is  needed  and  has 
its  place  in  a  complete  educational  scheme.  But  very  differ- 
ent in  kind  is  the  effort  expected  of  the  debater.  He  is  not 
usually  told  what  to  read.  He  is  merely  given  a  proposition, 
the  truth  of  which  he  is  to  investigate  by  any  means  possible 
and  prepare  to  convince  others  of  the  validity  of  his  findings. 
It  seems  to  be  a  case  of  carrying  a  message  to  Garcia;  he  is 
given  the  message  and  he  must  by  his  own  initiative  and  judg- 
ment discover  a  means  of  carrying  the  message.  This  seems 
much  like  the  requirements  of  life  outside  the  schoolroom,  the 
requirements  of  intelligent  action  and  good  citizenship. 

In  preparation  for  a  debate  there  is  a  constant  need  of  adapt- 
ing means  to  ends.  As  he  reads,  all  is  not  fish  that  comes  to 
the  debater's  net;  he  must  constantly  discriminate,  and  this 
means  training  in  the  power  to  evaluate,  a  power  on  which 
the  successes  in  life  depend.  In  the  usual  assigned  lessons 
of  the  text-book,  the  pupil  passively  attempts  to  master  and 
use  all  the  material;  in  reading  for  a  debate,  his  judgment 
is  always  in  action;  his  ability  to  reject  material  not  suited  to 
his  needs  is  just  as  important  as  his  ability  to  retain  and  apply 


252  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS' 

the  ideas  used  to  support  his  contention.  This  implies  clear- 
headed foresight.  The  success  of  a  debater  depends  most  of 
all  on  his  power  of  analysis.  He  must  be  able  to  resolve  the 
question  into  its  component  parts  and  discover  where  lies 
the  real  issue.  This  is  a  difficult  process  for  the  youthful 
thinker,  but  he  enjoys  making  the  effort,  for  it  gives  scope  to 
his  newly  evolving  powers.  Lincoln's  remarkable  success  in 
debate  was  due  almost  entirely  to  his  power  to  analyze  and  to 
discover  the  central  thought  of  any  question  with  which  he 
had  to  deal.  Careful  preparation  for  a  debate  certainly  exer- 
cises this  power  most  vigorously,  hence  aids  in  developing  it. 

While  the  debate  is  in  progress  valuable  personal  qualities 
are  demanded:  the  successful  debater  must  have  the  poise 
which  is  based  on  a  high  degree  of  self-control;  he  must  develop 
that  confidence  which  results  from  a  thorough  mastery  of  the 
issues  involved;  he  must  courageously  "stand  by  his  guns;" 
and  he  must  acquire  that  quickness  of  judgment  which  comes 
from  the  habit  of  vigorous  concentration,  the  ability  to  see 
things  in  their  proper  relations.  There  is  surely  no  way  to 
cultivate  these  highly  desirable  qualities  except  by  use;  and 
debating  at  its  best  gives  full  scope  for  all  of  them. 

But  debating  is  a  difficult  art,  as  all  who  have  watched  the 
efforts  of  high-school  pupils  know.  There  are  many  mistakes 
and  faults  common  to  debaters  of  this  age.  Any  one  who  has 
worked  with  them  is  often  reminded  of  Junius'  description  of 
the  dispatches  of  Lord  Hillsborough:  ''We  have  strong  asser- 
tion without  proof,  declamation  without  argument,  and  violent 
censures  without  dignity  or  moderation;  but  neither  correct- 
ness in  composition  nor  judgment  in  design."  Lack  of  "judg- 
ment in  design"  we  should  expect;  for  a  wisely  planned  and 
well  sustained  piece  of  argumentation  is  difficult  and  requires 
considerable  maturity  of  mind.  But  it  is  not  so  readily  under- 
stood why  high-school  pupils  that  have  mastered  geometry 
should    mistake   mere    assertion    for    proof.     Whatever    the 


DEBATING  253 

explanation,  the  youthful  debater  is  prone  to  believe  that  his 
opinion,  especially  when  well  expressed  and  sonorously  rendered, 
contributes  toward  the  winning  of  his  debate.  It  would  some- 
times seem  that  he  becomes  so  enamored  of  his  own  ideas  and 
his  own  voice  that  he  naturally  sees  no  need  of  any  further 
evidence  on  the  points  in  question.  The  simple  lesson  that 
debating  consists  in  proving  or  at  least  trying  to  prove  is  the 
first  that  nearly  all  young  debaters  must  learn.  The  knowledge 
that  assertion  is  not  proof  is  a  valuable  intellectual  asset,  which 
only  a  few  mature  minds  appear  to  possess.  The  one  who  guides 
the  efforts  of  high-school  pupils  in  debating  must  expect  fre- 
quently to  call  attention  to  the  simple  fault  here  discussed, 
and  often  much  firmness  is  needed  to  root  it  out. 

Again,  it  is  naturally  very  difficult  for  a  debater  of  high-school 
age  to  maintain  a  fair-minded  attitude  toward  his  subject  and 
toward  his  opponents.  The  utmost  skill  and  firmness  are 
demanded  of  the  one  directing  the  work  to  impress  upon  young 
debaters  that  common  courtesy  and  honesty  exact  this,  and  that 
failure  in  this  matter  is  sure  to  lose  the  sympathy  and  respect 
of  both  the  audience  and  the  judges.  The  debater  must  learn 
by  observation  and  experience  that  very  often  the  simplest  and 
most  direct  statement  of  a  case  is  the  strongest,  for  it  carries 
with  it  an  impression  of  fairness  and  justice  which  makes  a 
natural  appeal  to  all  listeners.  He  should,  as  far  as  possible, 
assume  the  attitude  of  a  seeker  of  truth  rather  than  an  advocate. 
This  means  that  the  spirit  of  mere  contentiousness  cannot 
be  allowed  to  develop,  and  that  anything  corresponding  to  the 
"trick  play"  in  football  tends  to  antagonize  both  audience 
and  judges.  The  young  debater  is  often  tempted  to  depend 
upon  an  unexpected  interpretation  of  the  question  or  some  far- 
fetched and  ridiculous  ways  of  combining  his  opponents'  ar- 
guments. These  and  like  quibbling  devices  often  have  a  charm 
for  the  young  speaker,  for  they  exercise  his  ingenuity  and  appeal 
to  his  desire  to  do  the  unusual;   but  he  must  be  taught  that 


254  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

audiences  are  never  greatly  moved  by  such  oratorical  jugglery, 
and  that  decisions  are  usually  based  on  something  more  sub- 
stantial. The  debating  team  is  a  splendid  place  to  learn  that 
anything  that  gives  the  appearance  of  mere  smartness  always 
militates  strongly  against  one's  influence.  In  general,  the 
debater  may  soon  learn  that  anything  artificial,  trifling,  or 
sophistical  is  very  unprofitable  and  has  no  place  in  the  serious 
business  of  life.  Moreover,  debaters  must  be  made  to  see 
that  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  trick  or  an  evasion  has  an  ele- 
ment of  meanness  in  it  and  will  be  so  viewed  by  the  audience, 
hence  that  it  is  not  in  the  interest  of  either  success  or  honesty 
to  pervert  the  facts  involved  in  the  debate.  Is  it  not  possible 
that  these  requirements  for  successful  debating  just  mentioned 
may  aid  greatly  in  the  work  of  engraining  important  moral 
traits  in  our  adolescent  debaters? 

Nearly  all  leaders  in  secondary  education  have  much  to  say 
concerning  the  school's  activities  and  the  methods  employed 
that  tend  to  develop  leadership;  for  it  is  to  the  high  schools, 
as  well  as  to  the  colleges,  that  we  must  look  for  training  in 
leadership.  Closely  following  the  self-reliance  of  middle  ado- 
lescence come  qualities  that  naturally  make  for  leadership; 
these  make  their  appearance  ordinarily  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
or  eighteen.  There  is  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  many  who  have 
given  thought  to  the  matter  that  debating  brings  to  light  another 
class  of  leaders  than  athletics  and  scholarship.  The  follow- 
ing testimony  on  this  point,  quoted  by  Professor  E.  C.  Robbins, 
is  from  the  dean  of  a  well-known  law  college:  "Some  of  my 
students  go  down  to  the  football  field,  and  for  a  brief  time  the 
papers  are  filled  with  accounts  of  their  achievements.  Then 
they  graduate  and  go  away.  Scarcely  ever  again  do  I  hear  or 
see  pubHc  mention  of  them.  Other  of  my  students  enter  the 
field  of  debate.  For  the  time  being  it  seems  as  if  their  rewards 
were  less  than  those  of  the  athlete.  Then  they,  too,  graduate 
and  go  away.    But,  as  the  years  pass,  I  continually  hear  pub- 


DEBATING  255 

lie  mention  of  them.  Some  are  guiding  the  work  of  towns  and 
cities  in  which  they  live.  Others  are  occupying  judicial  posi- 
tions of  honor  and  responsibility.  Still  others  are  in  the  polit- 
ical arena.  I  read  of  them  urging  reforms  in  state  legislatures. 
Their  voices  resound  in  the  halls  of  Congress.  As  governors 
of  states  they  are  holding  in  their  hands  the  destinies  of  many 
people.  It  is  the  high-school  and  university  debaters  who  in 
after  years  take  an  active  part  in  the  work  of  the  world." 

But  all  safe  and  enduring  leadership  is  based  on  the  ability 
to  do  and  secure  "teamwork."  Cooperation  is  the  modem 
pass-word  to  achievement.  As  was  indicated  in  Chapter  III, 
one  of  the  characteristics  of  late  adolescence  is  the  desire  to 
cooperate;  hence  many  high-school  pupils  of  seventeen  or 
eighteen  are  ripe  for  training  in  all  forms  of  cooperation;  and 
it  can  be  shown  that  successful  debating,  like  athletic  games, 
depends  very  largely  on  teamwork.  After  the  debaters  have 
read  widely  and  systematically  on  the  question  and  have  done 
their  most  vigorous  and  independent  thinking,  the  results  of 
all  their  efforts  must  be  worked  into  a  comprehensive  whole, 
the  unity  of  which  is  understood  by  every  member  of  the  team. 
This  requirement  of  successful  debating  distinguishes  it  from 
all  other  kinds  of  intellectual  contests.  The  debater  is  com- 
pelled to  make  his  part  of  the  argument  contribute  toward  the 
establishment  of  the  one  main  issue  of  the  question  as  inter- 
preted by  the  joint  efforts  of  the  team;  and  he  must,  at  every 
stage,  make  his  audience  see  clearly  the  relation  of  his  work  to 
that  of  his  colleagues.  The  debater  must  continually  heed  the 
injimction,  "Act  well  your  part,  for  there  the  honor  lies." 

These  are  some  of  the  benefits  and  this  would  appear  to  be 
the  kind  of  training  that  high-school  pupils  may  derive  from 
properly  directed  work  in  debate.  But,  as  J.  G.  Holyocke  has 
afl&rmed,  "  the  supreme  advantage  of  debate  is  that  it  compels 
a  man  to  think,  A  man  is  not  a  man  unless  he  is  a  thinker  —  he 
is  a  fool,  having  no  ideals  of  his  own."    The  high-school  pupil 


256  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

who  has  done  the  constructive  and  persistent  thinking  neces- 
sary to  successful  debating,  who  has  been  compelled  by  the 
nature  of  his  task  to  study  a  proposition  from  every  possible 
point  of  view,  is  not  very  likely  to  make  overhasty  general- 
izations and  draw  sweeping  conclusions,  for  he  has  learned  by 
experience  the  penalty  that  may  be  exacted  for  such  a  viola- 
tion of  the  laws  of  thought. 

The  conditions  of  successful  debating,  both  during  prepara- 
tion and  when  the  debate  is  in  progress,  are  such  that  the  de- 
bater is  constantly  forced  to  the  limit  of  his  ability;  he  is  en- 
gaged in  a  conflict  of  such  a  nature  that  a  single  serious  blunder 
in  his  thinking  is  pretty  sure  to  mean  failure;  and  red-blooded 
youth  has  always  loved  and  been  stimulated  to  the  utmost 
by  some  form  of  conflict.  The  supreme  effort  involved  in 
thinking  long  and  hard  on  a  subject  under  the  stress  of  conflict 
naturally  toughens  the  brain  fibers  and  extends  and  develops 
more  fully  the  net-work  of  nerve  processes  which  underlie  all 
logically  constructed  thought.  Moreover,  the  youth  who  has 
gone  through  a  well-fought  debate  on  any  important  question 
and  has  exhausted  all  the  resources  within  his  reach  will  readily 
realize  how  shallow  is  his  knowledge  of  other  subjects. 

ni 

Unfortunately,  debating,  like  other  forms  of  contest  that 
make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  adolescent,  involves  both  mental 
and  moral  dangers,  some  of  which  have  already  been  intimated. 
How  are  these  to  be  avoided?  The  answer  is  the  same  as  that 
concerning  the  dangers  that  naturally  accompany  social  and 
athletic  activities.  The  adolescent,  like  the  youthful  Tele- 
machus,  constantly  needs  a  skilful  and  sympathetic  adult 
counsellor,  and  experience  urges  strongly  that  the  mentor  in 
this  case,  as  in  athletics,  be  a  member  of  the  faculty.  The 
welfare  of  the  individuals  and  the  success  of  the  undertaking 
^s  a  whole  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  kind  of  person  that 


DEBATING  257 

is  chosen  as  faculty  adviser.  It  is  easy  to  name  the  necessary 
qualities,  but  the  combination  is  not  always  easy  to  find.  It 
should  be  some  one  interested  in  young  people  and  their  efforts, 
willing  to  give  considerable  time  and  effort,  somewhat  familiar 
with  the  principles  of  debating,  able  to  give  sympathetic  and 
intelligent  constructive  criticism,  skilled  in  the  psychology  of 
suggestion,  and  aware  of  the  educational  and  social  value  of 
debating.  Much  firmness  is  often  needed  on  the  part  of  the 
adviser  to  discourage  superficiality  and  loose  thinking  and  to 
stamp  out  youthful  proneness  to  raise  mere  verbal  issues  and 
indulge  in  glib  talking.  "It  is  a  calamity  to  be  able  to  talk 
glibly  upon  any  subject."  Further,  if  there  is  to  be  debating 
against  other  schools,  common  honesty  and  a  knowledge  of 
what  constitutes  fair  dealing  in  such  matters  are  fundamental 
requisites  to  guard  the  youthful  disputants  against  both  men- 
tal and  moral  harm. 

To  the  one  willing  to  undertake  this  interesting  work,  if  in- 
experienced, the  following  suggestions  may  be  helpful:  — 

The  author  believes  it  is  a  great  mistake  for  pupils  to  under- 
take to  meet  other  high  schools  in  debate  unless  they  have  had 
considerable  practice;  such  an  undertaking  is  likely  to  lead 
to  an  oratorical  contest  with  three  speakers  representing  the 
school,  instead  of  a  real  debate;  and  the  temptation  to  certain 
dishonest  practices  on  the  part  of  both  the  coach  and  the  de- 
baters is  very  great.  It  is  usually  found  that  the  most  effec- 
tive way  to  secure  and  sustain  interest  and  effort  in  debating 
is  to  organize  some  kind  of  a  club  or  society  whose  main  pur- 
pose is  practice  in  debate.  Adolescents,  as  we  have  seen,  natu- 
rally find  satisfaction  in  almost  any  form  of  organization; 
they  profit  by  conforming  to  parliamentary  law  and  the  con- 
stitution and  by-laws  of  such  an  organization ;  as  Hall  observes, 
they  are  frequently  "great  sticklers  for  rules  and  technicali- 
ties." Considerable  benefit  comes  from  the  experience  of  draw- 
ing UD  a  simple  constitution  and  by-laws  and  getting  them 


258  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

adopted,  provided  the  pupils  take  an  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings. The  authors  of  nearly  all  the  books  on  debating 
seem  to  have  in  mind  interschool  debating;  whereas  the  pres- 
ent writer  is  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  intraschool  debating 
is  by  far  the  most  important  part  of  the  work;  it  is  free  from 
many  of  the  dangers  of  interschool  contests,  and  an  unlimited 
number  can  participate.  It  will  be  noted  that  much  of  what 
is  said  in  the  following  paragraphs  applies  especially  to  regular 
debating  within  the  school. 

Who  shall  be  members  of  the  debating  organization?  Ex- 
perience would  seem  to  prove  that  better  work  is  done  by  both 
boys  and  girls  when  they  are  segregated.  The  charter  members 
are  naturally  the  boys  or  girls  of  the  school  who  are  anxious  to 
gain  experience  in  debating;  and  these  are  likely  to  be  the  more 
serious-minded  pupils  that  are  willing  to  make  a  real  effort. 
Because  interest  and  ability  in  argumentation  usually  appears 
in  middle  adolescence,  the  membership  will  naturally  be  drawn 
from  the  two  upper  classes  of  the  senior  high  school,  with  an 
occasional  mature  pupil  from  a  lower  class.  The  members 
must  be  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  care  in  choosing  new 
members;  both  the  members  and  the  school  in  general  should 
feel  that  membership  in  the  debating  society  is  an  honor.  As 
a  result  of  considerable  experimenting,  it  is  recommended  that 
a  pupil  must  be  approved  by  the  faculty  adviser  and  secure  a 
two-thirds  vote  in  order  to  gain  membership.  Unless  the  mem- 
bership is  carefully  guarded,  it  is  very  difficult  to  maintain  a 
high  standard  of  work.  Constant  care  and  influence  on  the 
part  of  the  faculty  adviser  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  mem- 
bership thoroughly  democratic;  any  pupil  of  ability  who  is 
really  interested  m  debating  and  willing  to  work  should  be 
able  to  gain  admission.  The  number  of  members  must  be 
limited  by  the  constitution,  otherwise  the  opportunities  for  de- 
bating will  not  be  sufficiently  frequent;  twenty  or  twenty-five 
has  been  found  very  satisfactory.    The  basis  of  membership 


DEBATING  259 

here  recommended  does  not  interfere  with  the  development 
of  much  good  fellowship  and  the  enjoyment  of  occasional  func- 
tions of  a  purely  social  nature.  The  best  debating  organiza- 
tion with  which  the  author  has  had  experience  comes  together 
two  or  three  times  a  year  for  this  purpose,  also  gives  one  dance 
in  the  name  of  the  society.  The  year  always  ends  with  a 
formal  dinner,  at  which  the  members  gain  experience  in  after- 
dinner  speaking. 

Perhaps  the  next  in  importance  to  a  competent  adviser  and 
a  carefully  constituted  membership  is  a  suitable  time  for  hold- 
ing the  regular  meetings.  The  time  must  be  such  as  to  make 
possible  a  full  attendance  at  all  the  meetings.  The  ideal  is 
some  hour  within  the  school  day;  this  is  easily  arranged  in 
high  schools  where  an  hour  or  two  a  week  is  set  apart  for 
the  meetings  of  all  the  organizations  of  the  school.  Where 
this  plan  is  not  in  force,  it  has  been  found  most  satisfactory 
to  hold  the  meeting  in  the  early  evening,  with  insistence  on 
prompt  opening  and  closing.  Immediately  after  school  is 
certainly  not  a  suitable  time,  as  the  members  are  not  in  a  men- 
tal condition  to  do  vigorous  work  or  to  enjoy  the  meetings; 
moreover  this  is  the  time  when  nearly  every  pupil  should  be 
engaged  in  some  form  of  physical  activity.  Experience  proves 
that  the  best  results  will  be  secured  when  the  regular  meetings 
occur  weekly;  and  nothing  except  the  closing  of  the  school 
should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  these  weekly  meetings. 
The  faculty  adviser  or  his  representative  should  be  present  at 
all  the  meetings.  It  is  assumed  that  the  reasons  for  the  above 
suggestions  are  readily  apparent. 

(  The  most  important  of  the  standing  committees  that  the 
constitution  will  provide  for  is  the  one  responsible  for  the  pro- 
grams. The  questions  chosen  for  debate  should  usually  per- 
tain to  present-day  topics;  and  they  should  be  questions  that 
are  really  debatable.  In  the  selection  and  statement  of  ques- 
tions the  committee  occasionally  needs  help.    The  number  of 


260  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

debaters  placed  on  the  program  depends  upon  the  length  of 
time  allowed  each  speaker;  the  custom  is  two  or  three  debaters 
on  a  side.  The  time  allowed  for  the  constructive  speeches  is 
usually  from  seven  to  ten  minutes.  The  members  on  the  pro- 
gram are  expected  to  prepare  fully  and  make  a  sustained  effort; 
and  this  kind  of  an  effort  requires  at  least  seven  minutes  for 
each  disputant.  The  debate  should  always  be  the  principal 
part  of  the  program;  however,  interest  in  the  meetings  may  be 
increased  by  one  or  two  literary  or  musical  numbers;  a  weekly 
talk  on  current  history  has  proved  very  satisfactory  in  some 
debating  organizations.  Singleness  of  purpose  is  just  as  im- 
portant in  a  debating  club  as  elsewhere. 

Unless  the  English  department  of  the  school  furnishes  the 
necessary  training,  the  faculty  adviser  will  need  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  the  matter  of  reading  and  note-taking,  selecting  and 
organizing  material,  analyzing  the  question  and  determining 
the  main  issue.  Suggestions  will  be  needed  concerning  the 
fallacies  to  be  guarded  against  in  one's  own  debating  and  de- 
tected in  one's  opponents,  such  fallacies  as,  hasty  gener- 
aUzation,  arguing  in  a  circle,  arguing  from  false  assumptions, 
arguing  from  ambiguous  evidence,  and  unwarranted  assumption 
of  causal  relations.  Nearly  all  of  this  instruction  can  best 
be  given  in  connection  with  the  regular  debates  as  they  occur. 
The  function  of  the  faculty  adviser  is  at  least  two  fold:  to  give 
inspiration  and  encouragement,  and  to  be  always  ready  with 
thorough  constructive  criticism.  The  author  has  long  been 
in  the  habit  of  following  every  debate  with  an  open  and  frank 
criticism  of  each  speaker  on  the  program;  and  this  weekly 
criticism  affords  the  best  possible  opportunity  to  supply  from 
time  to  time  the  needed  instruction  concerning  the  principles 
and  art  of  debating.  Both  the  debaters  and  the  other  members 
who  have  listened  to  the  debate  have  before  them  a  concrete 
example  of  the  points  with  respect  to  which  instruction  is  given; 
tliis  is  clearly  an  inductive  method  of  approach  and  ought  to 


DEBATING  261 

be  the  most  effective,  since  the  matter  in  hand  is  something 
to  be  done.  From  the  nature  of  the  case  the  debaters  are  al- 
ways in  a  receptive  mood.  If  ordinary  tact  is  used,  the  crit- 
icism may,  if  needed,  be  very  severe.  Besides  pointing  out 
fundamental  faults  concerning  organization  of  material,  meth- 
ods of  attack,  honesty  in  handling  material,  and  presenta- 
tion, the  criticism  should  include  slovenly  enunciation,  habits 
of  false  inflection  and  emphasis,  and  mannerisms  of  all  kinds; 
in  brief,  all  bad  habits  of  speech  which  will  in  the  least  inter- 
fere with  effective  speaking.  It  will  be  understood  that  ad- 
verse criticism  must  not  be  crowded  on  the  young  debater 
faster  than  he  can  make  use  of  it.  However,  he  must  imder- 
stand  from  the  first  that  successful  debating  involves  much 
more  than  a  mere  marshaling  of  logical  arguments;  he  must 
realize  that  it  is  his  business  to  present  his  arguments  in  a 
manner  that  will  cause  others  to  think  and  feel  as  he  does  about 
the  question  under  discussion.  This  he  is  not  likely  to  do  effec- 
tively by  reading  a  manuscript,  however  well  it  may  have  been 
prepared.  Nothing  must  come  between  the  speaker  and  the 
people  whom  he  is  trying  to  persuade,  for  they  must  think  only 
of  his  arguments  and  their  apphcation  to  the  question.  This 
means  that  the  speaker  must  be  natural  in  manner  and  voice, 
generally  deliberate  rather  than  rapid  or  nervous,  persuasive 
rather  than  aggressive,  dignified  rather  than  dramatic,  spirited 
and  vigorous  when  the  thought  requires  it  but  not  violent;  and 
his  voice  should  be  forceful,  expressing  earnestness  and  feel- 
ing, but  not  loud. 

Anyone  responsible  for  the  work  of  young  debaters  soon  learns 
that  his  chief  function  is  to  so  guide  their  efforts  that  real  de- 
bating will  be  the  result  rather  than  speech  making  on  the 
afl&rmative  and  negative  sides  of  the  question;  and  this  is  equiv- 
alent to  saying  that  much  attention  must  be  given  to  the  whole 
matter  of  rebuttal.  The  debaters  should  early  learn  that 
the  foundation  for  effective  rebuttal  is  a  relatively  full  knowl- 


262  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

edge  of  both  sides  of  the  question,  together  with  much  think- 
ing so  directed  as  to  lead  to  a  complete  and  clear  analysis  of 
the  same.  Only  a  Httle  thought  on  the  part  of  the  reader  is 
necessary  to  realize  that  this  is  most  wholesome  both  intellect- 
ually and  morally,  and  that  it  is  a  natural  safeguard  against 
the  dangers  that  are  supposed  to  be  involved  in  formal  debat- 
ing when  indulged  in  by  young  people.  Generally  debatable 
questions  suitable  for  high-school  pupils  have  been  so  thor- 
oughly discussed  publicly  that  the  debaters  on  both  sides  can 
anticipate  all  the  arguments  of  their  opponents,  hence  they 
are  able  to  determine  rather  definitely  beforehand  both  the 
material  and  the  methods  that  may  be  used  most  effectively 
in  refutation;  there  is  seldom  any  excuse  for  surprises  in  this 
matter.  Under  no  circumstances  can  a  debater  afford  to  ig- 
nore the  case  of  his  opponents.  Generally  the  most  effective 
kind  of  rebuttal  is  to  show  how  one's  constructive  arguments 
refute  the  essential  arguments  of  the  other  side;  that  is,  a  skil- 
ful debater  can  sometimes  turn  his  whole  constructive  speech 
into  rebuttal,  and  this  is  always  very  telling  and  gives  rise  to 
real  debating.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  rearrange  one's  whole  speech,  and  this  demands  considerable 
resourcefulness  on  the  part  of  a  young  speaker;  but  resource- 
fulness is  one  of  the  qualities  for  which  we  are  striving  when 
we  are  giving  our  time  to  training  high-school  pupils  in  debate. 
The  most  common  weakness  of  young  debaters  in  the  matter 
of  rebuttal  is  that  their  efforts  are  scattering  and  trivial,  con- 
sisting often  of  brief,  sarcastic  remarks  on  each  of  the  opponents' 
arguments.  As  Foster  says,  *'In  refutation  debaters  usually 
gain  in  spirit  and  fall  off  in  substance."  This  form  of  weakness 
can  be  overcome,  if,  as  a  result  of  careful  analysis  of  the  question, 
the  debater  anticipates  the  arguments  of  his  opponents  and 
directs  his  efforts  to  meeting  only  the  essential  points;  it  should 
be  an  affair  of  undermining  the  opponents'  whole  fortification 
rather  than  much  sharp-shooting.    This  is  possible  only  after 


DEBATING  263 

a  rather  deep  and  broad  view  of  the  question  has  been  obtained, 
a  difficult  thing  for  high-school  pupils  to  get,  but  a  worthy  and 
stimulating  form  of  effort.  As  Dr.  Hall  suggests,  when  the 
pugnacious  instincts  are  developing  there  is  a  charm  in  point- 
ing out  the  fallacies  of  one's  opponents  and  making  these  fal- 
lacies appear  as  flagrant  as  possible;  it  is  one  of  the  arts  of 
self-defence;  it  turns  debating  into  a  game;  it  emphasizes  the 
conflict  features;  consequently  the  adolescent's  instinctive 
desire  effectively  to  flay  his  opponents  naturally  stimulates 
him  to  make  the  supreme  effort  necessary  to  gain  a  deep  and 
broad  view  of  the  question  if  he  is  made  to  realize  that  this  is 
the  only  sure  way  of  accomplishing  his  purpose.  K  the  high- 
school  debater  repeatedly  learns  by  experience  that  nothing 
less  than  an  understanding  of  the  underlying  principles  involved 
in  the  question  will  lead  to  thorough  and  effective  rebuttal, 
he  is  doing  much  toward  learning  how  to  study  problems  in 
a  scientific  way  and  toward  establishing  highly  desirable  mental 
habits  and  attitudes — habits  and  attitudes  the  opposite  of  those 
which  the  critics  of  debating  charge  against  it. 

If  debating  is  as  valuable  a  school  exercise  as  its  advocates 
believe  it  to  be,  and  if  it  stimulates  the  participants  to  do  much 
constructive  and  independent  thinking,  the  question  naturally 
arises  as  to  the  justice  and  advisability  of  giving  school  credit 
for  this  work.  Fortunately,  when  the  work  is  directed  with 
the  same  degree  of  skill  and  enthusiasm  as  successfully  managed 
athletics,  the  offering  of  credit  is  not  necessary  to  induce  pupils 
to  attempt  debating,  nor  is  it  needed  to  secure  their  best  efforts. 
Because  of  the  social  element  in  debating,  because  of  its  appeal 
to  the  ripening  powers  of  reasoning,  because  of  the  adolescent's 
instinctive  fondness  for  some  kind  of  formal  contest,  and,  per- 
haps most  of  all,  because  of  the  assurance  and  real  benefit 
which  the  debater  feels  that  he  is  gaining,  in  nearly  any  high 
school  of  seventy-five  or  more  there  can  be  found  a  sufficient 
number  of  pupils  to  make  debating  enjoyable  and  worth  while, 


264  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

regardless  of  credit.  Much  of  the  satisfaction  that  comes 
from  voluntary  work  in  any  line  is  due  to  the  very  fact  that  it 
is  voluntary;  and  young  people  cannot  learn  too  soon  that  it 
is  the  seemingly  superfluous  work  that  leads  to  greatest  ul- 
timate success.  Hence  it  would  seem,  from  the  standpoint  of 
benefit  derived  or  from  any  consideration  of  necessity,  that 
debating  may  be  carried  on  successfully  without  any  thought 
of  graduation  credit;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  from  the  stand- 
point of  justice  to  the  pupils,  it  would  seem  equally  clear  that 
credit  may  be  given  and  counted  as  part  of  the  required  work 
in  English  if  a  reasonable  plan  is  worked  out  for  measuring 
the  amount  of  credit  allowed. 

The  author  has  found  the  giving  of  credit  practicable  in  the 
case  of  interschool  debating.  After  the  teams  have  been  chosen, 
if  a  member  of  the  faculty  keeps  closely  enough  in  touch  with 
the  reading  that  the  debaters  do  and  the  amount  of  effort  put 
into  analysis  and  organization,  there  is  little  trouble  in  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  credit  that  can  be  justly  allowed.  When 
possible  this  is  best  managed  by  having  the  teams  meet  daily 
with  their  faculty  adviser  for  a  class  period  and  report  to  each 
other  on  their  findings.  This  insures  continuous  progress, 
encourages  full  consideration  of  both  sides  of  the  question,  and 
furnishes  the  machinery  for  cooperation.  In  this  daily  dis- 
cussion the  debaters  learn  from  each  other,  both  by  suggestion 
and  by  an  open-court  method  of  evaluating,  all  the  arguments 
on  both  sides.  It  has  been  found  advantageous  to  hold  these 
daily  discussions  for  a  few  weeks  before  deciding  which  side  of 
the  question  the  debaters  are  to  take. 

IV 

With  the  exception  of  the  last  few  sentences,  this  chapter 
has  dealt  entirely  with  intraschool  debating,  whereas  nearly 
all  other  books  seem  to  focus  on  interschool  debating.  This 
form  of  contest  is  not  necessary  to  the  interest  or  success  of 


DEBATING  265 

debating  within  the  school;  in  fact,  debaters  should  reach  a 
considerable  degree  of  skill  and  confidence  before  attempting 
to  represent  their  school  against  another  school.  A  careful 
consideration  of  the  objections  and  criticisms  charged  against 
debating  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  objectors  generally 
have  in  mind  interschool  debates;  and  the  tendencies  to  the 
dangers  and  evils  of  interschool  debating  are  greatly  reduced 
when  the  pupils  are  carefully  trained  and  are  somewhat  skil- 
ful; for  they  have  "learned  to  do  by  doing"  and  the  tempta- 
tion to  seek  or  receive  illegitimate  help  is  greatly  lessened.  Al- 
though interschool  debating  is  not  necessary  to  the  success  of 
school  debating,  as  in  the  case  of  athletic  games,  a  strong  in- 
centive is  furnished  when  a  young  debater  can  look  forward  to 
the  possibility  of  sometime  representing  his  school  in  debate; 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  country  interschool  debating  is  still 
in  vogue,  notwithstanding  the  inmioderate  amount  of  effort 
that  is  devoted  to  some  of  the  rival  forms  of  interschool  con- 
tests. 

The  dangers  and  evils  growing  out  of  interschool  athletics 
are  so  numerous  and  the  temptations  are  so  great  that  in  many 
states  there  has  been  developed  an  elaborate  set  of  rules  and 
regulations,  with  a  view  to  preventing  or  at  least  lessening  the 
evils  incident  to  these  contests.  In  like  manner,  some  of  the 
chances  for  misunderstandings  and  some  of  the  temptations 
to  use  unfair  means  can  be  reduced  by  some  form  of  agreement 
between  the  schools  that  meet  in  debate.  Experience  has 
proved  the  following  regulations,  or  their  like,  to  be  helpful. 

All  temptation  to  take  advantage  or  quibble  in  connection 
with  the  statement  of  the  question  for  debate  will  be  forestalled 
if  each  school  furnishes  both  a  negative  and  an  afl&rmative  team. 
This  stimulates  everybody  concerned  to  choose  a  debatable 
question  and  to  formulate  a  clear  and  fair  statement  of  the 
proposition.  It  is  the  custom  to  bring  this  about  either  by 
arranging  a  dual  debate  (each  school  sending  a  negative  team 


266  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

to  the  other  school,  the  affirmative  team  debating  at  home) 
or  by  arranging  a  triangle  debate  (school  A  sending  a  negative 
team  to  B,  B  to  C,  and  C  to  A).  This  latter  plan  has  a  few 
imimportant  advantages.  It  is  extremely  desirable  to  have 
teams  working  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  and  either  of  the 
above  plans  accomplishes  this. 

There  should  of  course  be  a  clear  understanding  with  respect 
to  the  time  allowed  for  each  speaker,  the  number  and  order  of 
rebuttal  speeches,  and  the  nature  of  the  speeches  allowed  as 
rebuttal.  Concerning  this  last  point,  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  limit  rebuttal  to  refutation  of  alleged  facts  and  to  attempt- 
ing to  show  how  the  facts,  principles,  and  arguments  already 
presented  affect  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  opposing  team; 
that  is,  all  new  material  and  arguments  of  a  constructive  nature 
are  excluded  from  the  rebuttal  speeches. 

It  is  also  in  the  interest  of  fairness  that  all  testimony  quoted 
in  support  of  either  side  be  confined  to  public  documents  or 
books  accessible  to  all  parties.  For  many  reasons  experience 
has  proved  that  it  is  best  to  exclude  the  use  of  private  letters 
from  the  debate. 

It  is  usually  agreed  that  both  the  organization  of  the  speeches 
and  the  language  in  which  the  arguments  are  expressed  shall 
be  the  work  of  the  pupils.  This  is  naturally  a  difficult  agree- 
ment to  interpret  and  enforce.  As  in  athletic  contests,  nearly 
everything  depends  upon  the  honesty  and  correct  ideals  of  the 
faculty  member  in  charge  of  the  work. 

There  should  be  a  definite  understanding,  too,  as  to  the  form 
of  instruction  to  the  judges.  This  is  suggested  as  having  proved 
satisfactory:  "Consider  only  the  merits  of  the  debate  (not  of 
the  question).  You  are  sole  judges  of  what  constitutes  effective 
debating,  and  whether  the  debating  agreement  has  been  vio- 
lated during  progress  of  the  debate,  discrediting  any  violation 
as  the  case  seems  to  warrant."    At  the  close  of  the  debate 


DEBATING  267 

each  judge  should  hand  in  an  *' affirmative'*  or  "negative" 
vote  without  conference. 

Perhaps  the  most  difficult  matter  to  arrange  in  a  fair  and 
satisfactory  way  is  the  method  of  securing  judges.  Sometimes 
very  elaborate  codes  of  rules  are  drawn  up  in  attempting  to 
regulate  this  part  of  the  procedure;  but  all  schemes  that  have 
been  tried  seem  to  have  proved  objectionable  in  some  feature. 
The  least  troublesome  and  apparently  most  satisfactory  plan 
is  an  arrangement  whereby  the  public  speaking  department 
of  some  near-by  college  or  university  is  asked  to  furnish  the 
judges;  this  usually  results  in  trusting  the  decision  of  the  de- 
bate to  rather  young  and  inexperienced  men  who  have  them- 
selves been  successful  debaters.  Another  method  is  the  ex- 
change on  a  fixed  date  of  lists  of  people  that  the  schools  propose 
as  competent  judges;  each  school  is  given  the  privilege  of  strik- 
ing out  the  names  of  all  persons  to  whom  there  is  any  objection; 
then  the  revised  lists  are  returned,  and  the  judges  are  selected 
from  the  names  remaining.  This  plan  frequently  proves  trouble- 
some in  practice.  Whatever  method  of  selecting  is  employed, 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  inviting  any  one  that  is  especially 
interested  in  either  of  the  competing  schools. 

When  interschool  debates  are  conducted  in  a  spirit  of  fair- 
ness, much  interest  and  benefit  results.  Besides  reacting  fa- 
vorably on  the  debating  within  the  school,  the  participants  are 
naturally  stimulated  to  make  a  supreme  effort  both  in  prepara- 
tion and  in  delivery;  interschool  relations  other  than  those 
based  on  physical  prowess  and  skill  are  established  between 
the  competing  schools;  and  the  attention  of  the  pupils  of  the 
schools  is  drawn  to  other  than  purely  physical  attainments. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
HIGH-SCHOOL    JOURNALISM 

Shall  the  high  school  edit  and  publish  a  paper?  Many 
principals  and  faculties  that  have  answered  this  question  in 
the  affirmative  have  later  regretted  their  decisions.  This 
fact  suggests  that  there  are  real  and  frequently  troublesome 
problems  involved  in  the  managing  and  pubHshing  of  a  high- 
school  paper;  but  this  should  not  greatly  influence  the  answer 
to  the  question.  Whenever  many  people  are  to  be  dealt  with 
and  cooperation  secured,  and  whenever  the  nature  of  the  thing 
to  be  done,  because  of  the  large  human  element  and  the  volun- 
tary character  of  the  work,  makes  rules  and  regulations  un- 
desirable, we  must  expect  that  there  will  continually  arise  many 
deUcate  and  sometimes  disturbing  problems.  If  the  thing  is 
worth  while  from  the  standpoint  of  the  people  most  concerned 
and  the  means  are  available,  there  is  only  one  right  decision. 
The  advisability  of  starting  a  school  paper  depends  upon  the 
size  of  the  school  and  whether  there  is  a  competent  member  of 
the  faculty  ready  to  undertake  the  work.  It  is  usually  found 
difficult  to  maintain  a  paper  in  a  high  school  with  less  than  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pupils. 

When  a  high  school  is  too  small  to  publish  and  support  a 
school  paper,  it  is  often  well  to  arrange  with  the  editor  of  the 
local  paper  for  space  to  be  used  by  the  school,  either  in  report- 
ing the  happenings  of  the  school  or  in  publishing  some  of  the 
best  work  in  Enghsh.  The  writing  should  be  done  by  the 
pupils  and  revised  when  necessary  by  a  member  of  the  faculty. 

Many  school  papers  have  been  started  because  of  the  momen- 
tary enthusiasm  of  a  small  group,  or  on  account  of  the  whim  of 

268 


fflGH-SCHOOL  JOURNALISM  269 

some  one  who  naturally  likes  to  try  something  new;  such  papers 
are  little  more  than  playthings,  are  almost  certain  to  fail  of 
their  purpose,  or  will  be  discontinued  after  a  few  issues.  Both 
pupils  and  faculty  must  realize  from  the  first  that  there  is  a 
sustained  effort  to  be  made  and  considerable  work  that  must 
be  done  on  time;  but  it  is  a  kind  of  effort  that,  when  properly 
directed,  brings  satisfaction  and  much  real  benefit  to  the  school 
and  those  who  do  the  work.  The  paper  supplies  another  means 
of  expression,  and  boys  and  girls  find  satisfaction,  as  we  have 
seen  in  our  study  of  adolescence,  in  nearly  every  form  of  ex- 
pression. 

What  then  are  the  functions  of  a  high-school  paper  from  which 
come  the  benefits  to  the  pupils  and  the  school?  When  written 
and  edited  by  the  pupils  and  supervised  by  the  faculty,  the 
paper  furnishes  a  natural  means  of  unifying  the  purposes  and 
the  sentiments  of  the  school.  A  school  paper  can  be  made  to 
do  this  through  its  editorial  columns,  which  should  always  be 
written  by  the  pupils  who  have  at  heart  the  welfare  of  the  school 
as  a  whole,  and  who,  because  of  their  age  and  standing  among 
the  pupils,  have  influence;  however,  the  subjects  for  editorial 
discussion  may  often  be  suggested  by  members  of  the  faculty. 
The  paper  should  be  a  means  of  stimulating  proper  school  pride 
and  school  loyalty;  this  it  can  do  in  many  ways  but  especially 
by  treating  in  a  magnanimous  way  all  interschool  events.  The 
paper  should  reflect  the  spirit  and  sentiment  of  the  school, 
but  these  only  at  their  best.  The  community  in  which  a  public 
school  is  located  is  ready  to  be  interested  in  all  that  happens 
in  the  school,  for  the  school  belongs  to  it;  hence  the  paper 
will  do  much  toward  keeping  the  patrons  informed  concerning 
school  affairs  and  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  school.  Oc- 
casionally it  may  be  well  for  members  of  the  faculty  to  contrib- 
ute, with  a  view  to  moulding  opinion  aright  and  making  the 
pupils  feel  that  the  teachers  are  with  them  in  everything  worth 
while.    Perhaps  the  functions  of  the  school  paper,  so  far  as 


270  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  school  as  a  whole  is  concerned,  can  be  best  summed  up  by 
sa5dng  that  it  is  one  of  the  social  influences  of  the  school,  some- 
thing that  both  pupils  and  teachers  will  speak  of  as  "our." 

But  it  is  simpler  and  more  direct  to  discuss  the  functions  of 
any  phase  of  the  school's  work  from  the  standpoint  of  the  in- 
dividual pupils;  every  effort  must  justify  itself  by  meeting 
their  needs  and  interests.  There  are  two  principal  ways  in 
which  a  high-school  paper  can  be  made  to  benefit  the  pupils: 
(i)  it  furnishes  a  splendid  means  of  training  in  responsibility, 
for  those  connected  with  it  know  that  the  whole  school  and  the 
community  are  depending  upon  them  to  render  this  form  of  pub- 
lic service;  (2)  it  furnishes  the  most  natural  and  best  possible 
motive  for  the  pupils  to  cultivate  the  art  of  written  expression, 
for  they  must  think  of  something  worthy  and  interesting  to 
say  and  then  find  an  effective  way  of  saying  it;  it  is  a  pleasure 
for  most  people  to  record  their  observations  and  experiences, 
and  it  is  always  an  incentive  to  see  the  result  of  one's  effort  in 
print  and  know  that  friends  and  others  will  read  it. 

The  teachers  of  the  English  department  have  found  the 
school  paper  very  helpful.  The  school  life,  with  its  great  va- 
riety of  interests  and  activities,  is  always  rich  in  subjects  that 
appeal:  there  are  the  basket-ball  and  football  games,  so  full 
of  interest  and  excitement  at  every  turn  and  so  important  as 
to  their  results  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  that  furnish  the  best 
of  material  for  vivid  narrative  and  description;  there  is  the 
school  mass  meeting  or  rally  to  be  written  up,  so  that  the  readers 
who  were  not  present  will  learn  all  that  happened  and  get  the 
spirit  of  the  occasion;  there  should  always  be  new  things  of 
interest  going  on  in  the  laboratories  and  manual  training  shops, 
those  closely  watched  experiments  and  those  ambitious  proj- 
ects in  wood  or  metal;  there  is  the  school  or  class  party,  old 
to  the  experienced  faculty,  but  ever  new  and  appealing  to 
the  pupils,  that  must  be  described  so  that  it  will  lose  nothing 
in  the  telling;   there  are  the  science  trips  and  the  hikes  of  the 


HIGH-SCHOOL  JOURNALISM  271 

physical  training  department,  which  combine  pleasure  and 
instruction  in  such  a  simple  and  natural  way,  and  the  patrons 
of  the  school  are  pleased  to  know  about  them;  then  there  are 
the  hotly  contested  debates  with  a  near-by  rival  school,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  occasion  and  the  efforts  of  the  young  debaters  must 
be  reproduced.  All  these  topics  are  turned  to  use  by  the  re- 
sourceful teacher  of  EngUsh  composition;  some  of  them  will 
supply  material  for  paragraph  writing,  and  others  will  serve 
for  more  sustained  efforts.  Occasionally  the  teachers  will 
suggest  that  an  original  and  well- written  piece  of  regular  school 
work  be  given  a  place  in  the  paper  —  a  short  story,  a  vivid 
description,  or  a  character  sketch.  Then  there  are  more  possi- 
bilities than  are  generally  realized  in  the  writing  of  the  little 
personal  and  local  items.  These  may  be  treated  in  a  way  that 
is  commonplace  and  becomes  monotonous,  or  they  may  be 
made  spicy  and  occasionally  given  a  touch  of  humor.  One  of 
the  well-known  and  successful  writers  of  present-day  fiction 
began  by  writing  the  "personal  and  local"  column  for  her  high- 
school  paper  during  her  senior  year;  the  way  the  work  was 
done  led  to  her  employment  on  the  local  daily  which  printed 
the  school  paper;  and  this  in  turn  led  on  to  better  literary 
opportunities.  All  of  the  work  on  the  school  paper  is  of  a  so- 
cial nature  and  gives  opportunity  for  cooperation  and  responsi- 
bility. 

All  who  have  had  experience  know  that  a  high-school  paper 
gives  rise  to  many  problems,  and  it  is  the  purpose  of  this  chap- 
ter to  discuss  some  of  them.  The  problems  naturally  fall  into 
two  classes, —  those  that  have  just  been  under  consideration 
and  may  be  called  literary,  and  those  connected  with  the  cost, 
printing,  and  circulation  of  the  paper  and  may  be  called  bus- 
iness problems.  This  twofold  division  is  usually  recognized 
in  the  creation  and  organization  of  the  staff,  by  means  of  which 
responsibility  is  fixed  in  a  business  manager  and  a  chief  editor. 
The  first  thing  to  be  done,  when  it  has  been  decided  that  the 


272  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

school  will  publish  a  paper,  is  to  choose  the  two  pupils  best 
fitted  to  fill  these  positions;  the  success  of  the  enterprise  will 
depend  very  largely  on  the  leadership  and  skill  of  the  pupils 
selected.  Many  ways  of  choosing  have  been  tried;  everything 
considered,  it  seems  best  to  allow  the  entire  school  to  elect 
these  two  heads  by  first  casting  a  nominating  ballot,  then  elect 
from  the  two  or  three  receiving  the  highest  number  of  votes. 
This  method  is  democratic,  and  it  places  the  responsibility 
where  it  belongs.  It  may  be  well  in  some  cases  for  members 
of  the  faculty  to  draw  attention  in  an  unofl&cial  way  to  certain 
pupils  that  appear  to  have  the  qualities  needed  for  the  respec- 
tive positions;  but,  according  to  the  author's  experience,  the 
pupils  are  usually  the  best  judges  of  one  another's  ability. 

As  soon  as  these  two  heads  are  elected,  they  should  meet  with 
the  faculty  adviser  and  appoint  their  assistants.  The  business 
manager  needs  at  least  two  assistants,  one  to  be  responsible 
for  the  subscriptions  and  circulation  and  the  other  to  arrange 
all  matters  connected  with  the  advertising  carried  by  the  paper. 
The  editor-in-chief  should  have  ten  or  twelve  helpers;  the 
larger  the  number,  the  better  the  division  of  labor  and  the  more 
pupils  benefited.  Something  like  the  following  is  a  usual  ar- 
rangement of  assistant  editors:  one  general  assistant  to  take 
part  of  the  work  that  generally  falls  to  the  editor;  personal 
editor,  who  is  responsible  for  all  news  concerning  pupils  and 
teachers;  literary  editor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  cooperate  with 
the  English  department  of  the  school  and  secure  contributions 
from  the  pupils;  athletic  editor,  who  is  interested  in  and  im- 
derstands  the  various  games  played  by  the  school;  four  class 
reporters,  whose  business  it  is  to  gather  all  the  news  pertain- 
ing to  their  respective  classes  and  turn  it  over  to  the  proper 
editor;  editor  of  humor,  who  is  to  see  that  each  issue  of  the 
paper  is  well  supplied  with  the  amusing  incidents  of  the  school 
and  other  humor  worthy  of  the  paper;  alumni  editor,  to  keep 
informed  concerning  the  graduates  of  the  school  and  report  all 


HIGH-SCHOOL  JOURNALISM  273 

matters  of  interest;  exchange  editor,  who  shall  secure  ex- 
changes with  other  school  papers,  read  them,  and  comment 
on  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  pupils,  who  in  some  way  should 
have  access  to  these  exchanges.  An  art  editor  may  be  added 
to  the  Ust,  whose  duty  it  is  to  cooperate  with  the  teacher  of 
art  and  make  or  secure  from  the  pupils  suitable  cuts  for  the 
various  departments  of  the  paper  and  if  possible  furnish  an 
occasional  illustration. 

The  first  meeting  of  a  new  staff  is  very  important,  and  should 
be  attended  by  the  principal,  as  well  as  the  teacher  who  is  to 
act  as  adviser  and  critic.  At  this  meeting  will  be  determined 
the  size,  cost,  and  appearance  of  the  paper,  how  often  and  when 
the  paper  will  be  issued  (a  majority  of  high  schools  pubUsh 
monthly),  and  matters  of  general  policy.  After  each  issue 
there  should  be  a  meeting  of  all  the  editors  and  the  faculty  ad- 
viser to  make  plans  for  the  next  issue.  Very  definite  assign- 
ments of  work  should  be  made  to  each  editor;  it  is  important 
for  the  welfare  of  the  paper  that  all  the  copy  needed  be  handed 
to  the  chief  editor  at  a  definite  time.  It  is  always  a  great  ad- 
vantage to  those  responsible  to  have  more  copy  than  will  be 
used,  as  this  gives  a  chance  to  choose  the  best,  relieves  worry 
about  shortage  of  copy,  and  gives  more  freedom  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  forms  in  the  printing  office.  Inexperienced  pub- 
lishers usually  imderestimate  the  quantity  of  copy  that  will 
be  needed.  It. will  be  found  necessary  to  give  each  new  staff 
definite  instructions  relative  to  the  preparation  of  copy  for  the 
printer  and  the  marks  used  in  proof-reading. 

In  the  meantime  the  business  manager  and  his  assistants 
must  bend  every  energy  to  put  the  paper  on  a  sound  business 
basis.  The  subscription  price  of  the  paper  must  be  carefully 
fixed  after  a  study  of  all  the  conditions  (usually  about  one 
dollar  per  year),  and  a  vigorous  campaign  for  subscriptions  in- 
stituted. The  campaign  may  be  opened  by  a  carefully  planned 
effort  at  general  assembly,  when  the  plans  and  needs  of  the 


274  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

paper  will  be  explained,  and  everything  possible  done  to  arouse 
enthusiasm  for  the  enterprise.  When  the  meeting  has  reached 
its  climax,  every  pupil  is  given  a  chance  to  subscribe;  a  sub- 
scription from  every  pupil  cannot  be  secured.  This  meeting 
should  be  followed  immediately  by  a  canvass  of  the  alumni 
and  townspeople  for  subscriptions.  With  the  exception  of 
some  of  the  alumni  who  will  have  to  be  written  to,  nearly  all 
the  subscriptions  should  be  secured  in  three  or  four  days.  The 
subscription  money  must  be  collected  promptly,  as  the  first 
issue  of  the  paper  must  be  paid  for  from  this  source.  When  the 
number  of  subscribers  is  known,  the  advertising  manager  will 
secure,  if  possible,  advertisements  enough  to  occupy  about 
one-fourth  to  one-third  the  space.  In  presenting  the  proposi- 
tion to  the  business  men  of  the  town,  he  should  be  able  to  show 
them  that  his  paper  is  a  good  advertising  medium  because  of 
the  people  who  read  it;  it  is  not  business-like  to  ask  for  "an 
ad  to  help  the  paper  along."  If  the  work  is  done  on  sound 
business  principles,  a  school  paper  furnishes  splendid  business 
training.  The  rate  for  advertising  should  be  carefully  worked 
out,  the  advertisers  taking  the  larger  amounts  of  space  re- 
ceiving better  rates.  No  "special  rates"  should  be  given,  and 
the  rates  should  remain  fixed  throughout  the  year.  It  will 
greatly  aid  the  manager  in  his  work  if  he  secures  from  his  ad- 
vertisers a  large  number  of  year  contracts,  the  contracts  stat- 
ing the  amount  of  space  taken  and  the  price  paid.  Sometimes 
the  price  is  estimated  in  inches  and  sometimes  in  fractions 
of  a  page,  an  average  rate  being  about  twenty-five  cents  an 
inch. 

A  simple  but  adequate  system  of  accounts  for  both  the  cir- 
culating and  advertising  managers  should  be  devised  at  the  be- 
ginning; and  these  accounts  should  be  audited  once  a  month, 
otherwise  serious  trouble  may  arise,  as  the  present  writer  knows 
from  very  embarrassing  experiences.  It  is  the  custom  to  give 
every  advertiser  a  copy  of  each  issue  in  which  his  advertisement 


HIGH-SCHOOL  JOURNALISM  275 

appears.  If  there  is  more  than  one  competent  printer  in  the 
place,  the  contract  for  printing  the  paper  should  be  given  to 
the  lowest  bidder;  the  printers  who  wish  to  figure  on  the  job 
are  furnished  with  duplicate  memoranda  respecting  the  size 
of  the  paper,  the  kind  of  type,  and  the  quality  of  paper  to  be 
used.  A  receipt  should  be  given  without  fail  for  all  money 
received  for  subscriptions  and  advertising,  the  corresponding 
receipt  stub  showing  clearly  the  amount  received;  the  money 
collected  should  be  deposited  promptly  in  a  local  bank  and  all 
bills  paid  by  check.  The  reasons  for  these  precautions  are 
discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 

The  fate  of  the  paper,  especially  during  the  first  year,  will 
depend  largely  upon  the  judgment,  tact,  and  leadership  of 
the  faculty  adviser.  The  qualities  needed  are  practically  the 
same  as  are  required  for  the  management  of  any  of  the  other 
social  activities  of  the  school ;  if  to  these  is  added  a  little  expe- 
rience in  publishing,  the  work  will  be  likely  to  go  more  smoothly 
and  with  less  waste  of  energy. 

Any  one  who  has  had  experience  with  pupil  publications  will 
anticipate  certain  weaknesses  natural  to  youth  and  will  guard 
against  the  consequent  troubles.  He  will  expect  the  pupils 
to  exhibit  the  best  of  intentions  but  considerable  poor  judg- 
ment and  taste:  they  will  have  to  learn  news  values;  they 
will  sometimes  wish  to  print  items  that  might  injure  the  feel- 
ings of  some  of  their  readers,  because  of  their  undeveloped 
appreciation  of  other  people's  viewpoint,  and  because  of  their  de- 
sire to  make  the  paper  spicy;  and  they  will  frequently  want  to 
make  insinuating  references  to  personal  happenings  known 
only  to  a  little  group,  because  they  are  anxious  to  get  a  joke 
on  somebody.  It  will  be  found,  too,  that  the  average  high- 
school  pupil's  sense  of  humor  is  not  always  trustworthy,  but 
that  it  needs  training.  It  will  be  necessary  frequently  to  re- 
mind the  members  of  the  staff  that  the  paper  is  to  be  read  by 
many  outside  the  school,  hence  that  much  care  must  be  taken 


276  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

not  to  color  matters  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  wrong  impres- 
sion of  the  school  and  its  management. 

While  constructive  criticism  of  the  school  is  always  whole- 
some, the  teacher  in  charge  may  jQnd  it  necessary  to  inform  the 
pupils  outside  the  staff  of  the  difference  between  true  criticism 
and  mere  unpleasant  fault-finding.  Criticism  of  the  efforts  of 
the  editors  should  be  confined  to  those  pupils  who  have  already 
made  a  successful  contribution  to  the  paper  and  have  thus 
earned  the  right  to  speak  with  authority  in  the  matter. 

For  all  this  work  the  adviser  will  need  patience.  It  will  be 
advantageous  often  to  sit  down  with  the  young  writer  and  care- 
fully explain  why  changes  in  his  copy  are  necessary.  Adoles- 
cents, as  we  have  seen,  are  not  naturally  amenable  to  arbi- 
trary or  dogmatic  treatment;  their  opinions  and  personalities 
must  be  respected. 

The  work  of  editing  and  publishing  a  high-school  paper  at 
times  may  seem  discouraging,  since  the  members  of  a  new  staff 
must  be  trained  each  year,  and  they  will  repeat  the  mistakes 
and  show  the  same  indiscretions  as  those  of  previous  years. 
However,  something  can  be  done  toward  establishing  and  fos- 
tering good  traditions  for  the  paper;  and  this  will  make  the 
adviser's  task  somewhat  easier. 

In  nearly  any  high  school  it  will  be  found  that  the  pupils 
are  willing  and  often  anxious  to  undertake  the  publication  of  a 
paper,  because  youth  is  continually  seeking  new  forms  of  ex- 
pression, is  naturally  optimistic,  and  the  pupils  have  no  way 
of  knowing  the  difficulties  involved;  but  the  final  decision 
concerning  the  launching  of  a  school  paper  must  come  from 
some  one  on  the  faculty  who  is  willing  to  pay  the  price  in  time 
and  energy;  if  such  there  be,  remuneration  will  come  in  the 
same  way  that  all  efforts  for  the  welfare  of  young  people  are 
compensated. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ATHLETICS 


Whatever  notions  one  may  hold  concerning  high-school 
athletics,  whatever  misgivings  about  the  unalloyed  benefits 
and  educational  values  one  may  have,  and  whatever  aversion 
one  may  feel  to  the  added  responsibility  growing  out  of  their 
control  and  management,  athletics  we  have  and  will  continue 
to  have,  hence,  one  of  the  high-school  problems.  The  adoles- 
cent boy  that  comes  to  us  must  have  action  of  some  kind.  As 
Prof.  Fiske  of  Oberlin  expresses  it,  "The  breath  of  life  is  in  his 
nostrils.  Red  blood  is  surging  in  his  veins.  He  is  impatient 
at  overmuch  talk  on  any  subject,  when  the  impulse  to  do  things 
and  to  dare  things,  the  impulse  for  activity,  adventure,  and 
danger  is  tugging  at  his  heart  strings."  If  the  school  does  not 
provide  the  form  and  quality  of  action  that  his  nature  craves, 
he  will  find  the  ways  and  means,  and  often  to  his  detriment, 
and  sometimes  at  the  sacrifice  of  the  good  name  of  his  school 
and  the  peace  of  mind  of  the  teaching  staff. 

The  attitude  of  high-school  faculties  toward  athletics,  as 
toward  social  activities,  in  most  places,  has  passed  through 
three  stages  of  development:  (i)  Opposition  on  the  part  of 
school  authorities  existed  nearly  everywhere  fifty  or  sixty  years 
ago;  this  was  in  the  "good  old  days"  when  the  only  aim  of 
the  schools  was  to  inform  and  train  the  intellect;  at  this  time 
athletic  games  were,  not  only  thought  of  as  an  interference  with 
the  real  work  of  the  school,  but  they  were  viewed  as  a  positive 
evil  and  not  allowed  in  connection  with  the  school.    However, 

277 


278  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

there  were  in  those  days  many  ''student  pranks"  of  a  very 
unpleasant  nature  to  deal  with  and  occasional  outbreaks  calling 
for  the  most  drastic  action  by  the  authorities.  (2)  The  next 
stage  may  be  called  the  period  of  toleration  without  control. 
Principals  and  teachers  began  to  realize  that  the  boys  would 
organize  and  engage  in  athletics  regardless  of  whether  they 
were  given  permission.  Interscholastic  contests  were  arranged 
and  managed  by  the  boys  and  other  irresponsible  people.  The 
situation  became  extremely  discouraging  because  of  the  con- 
ditions which  developed,  and  the  frequent  disgraceful  occur- 
rences on  the  athletic  field;  there  was  trouble  about  "ringers,'* 
trouble  with  the  incompetent  or  unfair  officials,  trouble  with 
the  too  partisan  spectators,  and  trouble  about  finances.  (3) 
The  final  stage  of  development,  which  has  overcome  nearly 
all  the  difficulties,  may  be  called  one  of  cooperation;  the  school, 
the  teachers,  and  the  contestants  work  together  on  all  the 
problems,  and  the  results  have  come  to  be  generally  satisfac- 
tory. Most  of  this  chapter  will  be  occupied  with  a  discussion 
of  ways  and  means  of  successful  cooperation. 


From  the  viewpoint  of  this  book,  the  psychological  aspect 
of  high-school  athletics  is  most  interesting  and  important.  In 
early  adolescence  the  boy  is  living  over  again  the  feudal  period 
of  history  when  chivalry  was  one  of  the  best  characteristics 
of  the  race  and  when  personal  loyalty  to  some  hero  controlled 
the  will.  The  boy's  ideals  now  are  alertness,  shrewdness, 
skill,  and  the  other  feudal  virtues.  In  middle  adolescence, 
the  age  that  finds  most  of  the  boys  in  the  senior  high  school, 
the  youth  is  repeating  the  period  of  the  constitutional  monarch; 
his  thinking  and  his  doing  are  characterized  by  self-assertion, 
gradually  changing  into  cooperation;  and  the  progress  of  his 
will-development  is  marked  by  his  degree  of  self-reliance,  gained 
through  struggle  of  some  kind.    His  ideals  now  are  individ- 


ATHLETICS  279 

uality,  resourcefulness,  good  fellowship,  and  other  manly  qual- 
ities. When  all  these  characteristics  are  translated  into  terms 
of  modern  athletics,  and  when  the  coaching  is  in  charge  of  com- 
petent young  teachers  with  high  ideals  concerning  physical  and 
moral  development,  it  is  easy  to  perceive  how  significant  for  the 
welfare  of  the  individual  and  how  rich  in  possibilities  for  the 
upbuilding  of  standards  in  the  school  the  whole  matter  of  ath- 
letic training  becomes;  and  the  recapitulation  theory  of  devel- 
opment proves  very  suggestive. 

The  reader  does  not  understand  the  nature  of  adolescence  if 
he  fails  to  realize  the  powerful  influence  for  good  or  for  bad 
(often  mixed)  that  almost  any  form  of  organized  athletics  de- 
manding teamwork  may  become.  The  reflex  of  pleasure  and 
satisfaction  is  so  intense  that  it  amounts  to  almost  intoxica- 
tion. Systematic  gymnastic  drill  has  an  advantage  in  that  it 
may  result  in  the  most  symmetrical  physical  growth  and  devel- 
opment, and  exercise  in  the  form  of  work  brings  to  maturity 
many  desirable  moral  qualities;  but  vigorous  play  makes  the 
strongest  kind  of  appeal  to  the  whole  soul  and  body.  The 
proverb,  "man  is  whole  only  when  he  plays,"  suggests  the  vital 
unity  of  soul  and  body  that  results  from  the  enthusiastic  and 
absorbing  participation  in  social  games.  For  the  various 
forms  of  athletics,  as  Dr.  Hall  expresses  it,  "the  pulse  of 
adolescent  enthusiasm  beats  highest;"  and  we  must  remem- 
ber that  "play  is  always  and  everywhere  the  synonym  of 
youth."  Athletic  sports  make  this  powerful  appeal,  not 
only  because  they  give  an  outlet  and  satisfy  the  strong  crav- 
ings of  youth  for  intense  physical  and  mental  activity,  but 
because,  according  to  Gulick,  the  best  games  are  made  up 
of  muscular  coordinations  which  were  early  and  long  useful 
to  the  race  and  thus  involve  racially  old  elements  and 
awaken  deep  basic  emotions.  This  explains  why  games 
that  have  made  the  strongest  appeal  have  always  been  com- 
posed of  the   same   "underlying  neuro-muscular   activities" 


28o  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

and  have  had  the  same  "psychic  content;  '*  it  is  a  case  of  phylo- 
genetic   muscular   and   psychic   history    repeating   itself. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  whatever  activities  are  entered 
into  with  zest  and  enthusiasm,  absorbing  the  whole  being,  be- 
come significant  for  the  individual  at  least  for  the  time  being 
and  hence  are  the  most  powerful  formative  influences.  It  is 
well  to  remember,  also,  that  the  character-forming  influence  of 
athletics,  like  other  influences,  when  deferred  too  long,  will  fall 
far  short  of  producing  normal  results;  for,  as  has  been  shown  in 
an  earlier  chapter,  there  is  a  time  and  sequence  of  development 
of  the  nerve  areas  and  fiber  extentions  which  must  not  be  ig- 
nored; activity  must  follow  nature's  intention  and  "fulfill  the 
law  of  nascent  periods."  Fortunately,  in  most  cases,  the 
instinctive  interests  of  youth  are  found  to  be  our  best  guides 
in  this  matter;  and  his  indulgence  in  sports  is  not  an  expendi- 
ture of  non-productive  energy,  as  some  have  asserted,  but,  on 
the  contrary,  it  is  a  most  highly  productive  process,  resulting 
in  the  development  of  physical,  mental,  and  moral  qualities 
extremely  valuable  to  both  the  individual  and  society. 

In  discussing  the  effects  of  athletics,  the  development  and 
training  of  the  motor  centers  naturally  come  first.  Muscle 
training  is  always  a  brain-building  process.  Plato  preferred 
ignorance  to  knowledge  that  does  not  develop  the  motor  side  of 
our  nature  and  give  self-control.  For  Hall,  "will  action  is  the 
language  of  complete  men  and  the  goal  of  education,"  "and 
sound  ideas  rest  on  a  motor  basis."  Now,  the  motor  centers 
may  be  trained  by  work,  which  is  always  prompted  by  some  ob- 
ject to  be  attained  without  any  reference  to  the  effect  upon  the 
individual,  or  by  mere  exercise,  which  aims  to  develop  physical 
health  and  strength,  or  by  pure  play,  which  is  instinctive  and 
comes  in  response  to  a  craving  for  activity.  However,  both 
psychology  and  experience  tell  us  that  the  qualities  of  motor 
development  resulting  from  competitive  games  are  very  differ- 
ent from  those  derived  from  either  exercise  or  work.    Compe- 


ATHLETICS  281 

tition,  with  its  social  setting,  especially  for  the  adolescent,  is 
necessary  to  call  forth  the  utmost  effort;  and  this  effort  becomes 
"an  erethic  intoxication,"  causing  the  tension  needed  for  the 
complete  flushing  and  enlarging  of  the  blood  vessels  and  for 
bringing  into  action  the  nascent  fibers  and  cells,  which  would 
atrophy  if  not  used  and  irrigated.  When  maturity  is  reached 
the  possibility  for  complete  development  has  passed.  The 
adolescent  must  play  for  his  "second  breath,"  a  phenomenon 
characteristic  of  the  period,  if  the  deeper  sources  of  his  power 
are  to  be  reached  and  the  highest  motor  development  attained. 
It  seems  to  be  analogous  to  the  toughening  and  refining  of  the 
oak's  fibers  which  result  only  from  the  strain  and  violence 
of  a  hill-top  exposure  to  the  fiercest  winds.  Then,  too,  there 
is  a  subtile  quaUty  that  enters  into  the  motor  developments 
of  the  athletic  field,  due  to  the  mere  pleasure  that  naturally 
accompanies  the  motor  discharges  impelled  by  social  motives; 
these  impulses  and  emotions,  largely  social  in  their  origin,  have 
a  wonderful  toning  effect  on  the  whole  process,  giving,  not  only 
a  better  immediate  result,  but  tending  to  become  permanently 
associated  with  any  form  of  vigorous  motor  discharge.  More- 
over, the  exigencies  of  all  strenuous  games,  the  continuous 
necessity  of  meeting  the  unexpected,  tends  to  develop  in  the 
motor  centers  the  greatest  possible  flexibility  and  readiness  to 
respond  to  immediate  surroimdings  in  an  effective  way;  and, 
best  of  all,  much  of  this  motor  control  and  skill,  through 
repeated  use,  is  turned  over  to  the  reflex  centers  to  be  used  in 
later  life  in  all  sorts  of  emergencies,  so  that  there  results  a  per- 
manent asset  in  the  form  of  greatly  increased  motor  resource- 
fulness. In  brief,  the  body  becomes  an  effective  organism. 
All  this  motor  development  is  possible  only  when  the  proper 
games  are  played  and  at  the  proper  time  to  comply  with  the 
law  of  nascent  periods. 

,  But  the  quaUties  of  a  more  purely  mental  nature  that  may  be 
matured  on  the  athletic  field  are  also  worthy  of  serious  atten- 


282  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

tion.  All  writers  on  these  matters  call  attention  to  the  Greek 
system  of  education  in  which  all  physical  training  was  for  the 
sake  of  mental  training,  the  two  never  being  thought  of  apart. 
With  the  Greeks  a  sound,  well-developed  body  implied  a  sound, 
well-developed  mind.  The  Greeks,  too,  were  fully  aware  of 
the  significance  of  adolescence  in  education;  the  Panhellenic 
games  constituted  a  characteristic  expression  of  adolescent 
needs;  in  these  games  were  developed,  as  in  the  various  forms 
of  modern  athletics,  quick  thinking,  judgment,  mental  re- 
sourcefulness, and  concentration.  But  the  modern  sports  are 
better  suited  than  were  the  ancient  games  to  stimulate  these 
mental  activities,  because  of  their  intricate  and  highly  refined 
system  of  rules. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  possibilities  in  high-school  athletics  are 
to  be  found  along  moral  and  social  lines  of  growth  and  devel- 
opment; in  practice  it  is  not  easy  or  wise  to  separate  moral 
and  social  training,  since  in  practice  all  moral  conduct  has 
its  social  setting.  Dr.  Hall  boldly  asserts  that  "play  at  its 
best  is  only  a  school  of  ethics,"  giving  "courage  and  confidence," 
tending  "to  simplify  life  and  habits,  giving  energy,  decision, 
and  promptness  to  the  will,"  and  bringing  out  individuality. 
The  constant  self-control  and  coolness  of  temper  under  the  most 
trying  circumstances  necessary  to  the  highest  success  of  the 
player  tends  to  become  habitual;  and,  if  this  happens,  it  is 
one  of  man's  greatest  assets.  Since  most  of  the  athletic  ac- 
tivity of  high-school  boys  is  devoted  to  teamgames  requiring 
perfect  cooperation  and  submission  to  leadership,  perhaps  the 
highest  moral  quality  developed  is  self-sacrifice;  there  is  a 
constant  demand  that  the  individual  forego  his  own  wishes  and 
ambitions  for  the  interests  of  the  whole ;  obedience  to  the  coach 
and  the  captain  and  loyalty  to  the  team  naturally  become  his 
prime  motives;  self  must  be  voluntarily  surrendered  and 
merged  for  the  common  good;  and  thus  is  evolved  a  spirit  of 
self-sacrifice  and  devotion,  which,  if  they  become  habitual, 


ATHLETICS  283 

will  be  found  among  the  elements  of  his  character.  Not  only- 
must  the  player  learn  loyalty  to  his  team  and  to  those  direct- 
ing his  efforts,  but  he  soon  thinks  of  himself  as  a  representative 
of  his  school;  to  use  Professor  G.  H.  Palmer's  phrasing,  as  the 
football  player  "puts  on  his  uniform,  he  strips  off  his  isolated 
personality  and  stands  forth  as  the  trusted  champion  of  an 
institution."  Loyalty,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  later  chapter,  is 
without  doubt  the  strongest,  safest,  and  most  effective  motive 
with  which  to  appeal  to  the  adolescent. 

Then,  too,  no  better  scheme  could  be  devised  than  modem 
team  athletics  to  give  the  adolescent  a  first-hand  knowledge  of 
himself  and  his  own  reactions,  something  he  strongly  desires. 
Here  he  is  continually  measuring  his  strength,  his  speed,  his 
alertness,  his  self-control,  his  resourcefulness,  his  endurance, 
and  his  courage  by  means  of  concrete  tests  furnished  by  others 
of  his  own  age;  it  is  an  examination  where  there  is  no  chance 
for  "bluffing"  or  "cribbing,"  an  ordeal  which  tries  his  soul  as 
well  as  his  muscles.  Since  a  knowledge  of  one's  weaknesses  and 
shortcomings  is  the  chief  psychological  need  of  him  who  would 
improve,  this  thorough  and  voluntary  measuring  and  testing 
is  surely  most  wholesome. 

But  there  are,  also,  negative  advantages  and  benefits  claimed 
for  athletics  when  pursued  in  a  whole-hearted  manner.  In 
the  study  of  adolescence  we  found  that  there  is  a  rapid  increase 
of  energy  of  all  kinds  and  that  this  natural  energy  must  be  given 
some  channel  through  which  it  can  assert  itself  in  action;  this 
is  necessary  both  for  the  safety  of  the  individual  and  for  his 
further  development.  Much  of  this  marvelous  flow  of  new 
energy  is  either  directly  or  indirectly  associated  with  the  emer- 
gence of  sex-consciousness;  the  mental  processes  are  naturally 
closely  correlated  with  the  development  of  sex  during  adoles- 
cence. We  have  found  that  biologists  distinguish  between 
the  primary  and  secondary  sex  characteristics;  Dr.  Hall  has  sug- 
gested that  the  secondary  traits  and  manifestations  can  prop- 


284  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

erly  be  thought  of  as  ^'long-circuitings.''  This  analogy,  drawn 
from  the  science  of  electricity,  seems  helpful;  it  is  only  the 
short-circuits  that  are  dangerous  to  the  apparatus  and  the 
machinery  involved.  The  problem  of  dealing  helpfully  with 
adolescents  becomes  largely  a  matter  of  understanding  the 
secondary  sex  manifestations  and  providing  long-circuits  through 
which  they  may  freely  and  safely  flow  and  thus  find  expression. 
The  activity  involved  in  any  of  the  more  strenuous  forms 
of  team  competition  and  its  social  environment  so  exalts  the 
spirit  of  youth  that  "the  physical  pleasures  of  it  diffuse,  irrad- 
iate, and  mitigate  the  sexual  stress  just  at  the  age  when  its 
premature  localization  is  most  deleterious."  Thus  high-school 
athletics  may  well  be  considered  one  of  the  safeguards  against 
the  vices  of  which  the  adolescent  naturally  stands  in  so  much 
danger.  Besides  contributing  to  the  physical  and  moral  safety 
of  youth,  athletic  games  furnish  him  with  a  compelling  motive 
to  refrain  from  any  form  of  conduct  that  weakens  his  body 
and  thus  lessens  his  chances  for  the  highest  success;  to  be  phys- 
ically superior  is  a  joy  and  a  glory  to  a  young  man.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  athletics  provide  a  vicarious  outlet  for 
the  adolescent  impulses  which  are  surging  so  violently  and 
driving  so  many  splendid  boys  into  the  habits  and  vices  charac- 
teristic of  the  period. 

If  the  foregoing  analysis  of  the  relation  between  adolescence 
and  athletic  activity  is  correct,  adolescence  is  preeminently 
the  athletic  period;  for  our  discussion  has  attempted  to  show 
that  modern  athletics  furnish  a  pleasant,  natural,  and  effective 
way  of  developing  and  coordinating  the  motor  centers  and  thus 
rendering  the  individual  readily  adjustable  to  his  changing 
environment,  that  they  are  a  means  of  stimulating  to  the 
highest  degree  certain  useful  forms  of  mental  activity,  that  they 
afford  social  and  moral  training  by  making  a  strong  appeal 
to  the  motive  of  loyalty,  and  that  they  aid  in  safeguarding 
against  vices  peculiar  to  youth. 


ATHLETICS  285 

ra 
So  far  the  discussion  has  assumed  athletics  at  their  best. 
If  we  are  to  have  athletic  games  at  their  best,  the  evils  and 
dangers  that  frequently  accompany  contests  between  schools 
must  be  guarded  against.  These  evils  and  dangers  may 
grow  out  of  the  players'  own  enthusiasm  and  intoxication, 
or  they  may  come  from  the  over  anxiety  of  the  coach  to  win 
his  games,  or  they  may  be  the  result  of  the  ill-directed  enthus- 
iasm and  partisanship  of  the  school,  the  community,  and  the 
spectators. 

1.  All  athletic  games,  as  compared  with  general  gymnastic 
training,  are  of  necessity  somewhat  specialized  forms  of  ac- 
tivity, hence  the  tendency  toward  a  one-sided  development 
peculiar  to  each  particular  form  of  sport.  This  is  sometimes 
shown  when  the  football  player  tries  to  transfer  his  energies 
from  the  gridiron  to  the  basket-ball  floor,  where  he  has  certain 
ideas  and  movements  to  unlearn  and  many  new  ones  to  learn. 
This  difl&culty  can  be  somewhat  mitigated  by  providing  sev- 
eral forms  of  athletics  and  by  requiring  of  all  athletes  some  pre- 
liminary work  in  the  gymnasium,  thus  securing  a  more  symet- 
rical  development. 

2.  In  places  where  high-school  athletics  have  been  thoroughly 
organized  and  the  schools  have  close  and  bitter  rivals,  there 
has  resulted  a  strong  tendency  to  overtrain.  Kinds  of  train- 
ing that  might  be  safely  used  in  colleges  with  young  men  have 
been  employed  with  high-school  boys  in  their  middle  teens; 
and  permanent  injury  to  some  of  the  participants  has  resulted, 
due  to  overstraining  or  over-developing  certain  organs,  most 
frequently  the  heart.  This  state  of  affairs  has  come  from  sev- 
eral causes,  chief  of  which  is  over-estimating  the  importance  of 
victory,  to  which  the  glamour  of  the  press  has  contributed  its 
share  of  untoward  influence.  But  this  is  an  evil  for  which  the 
boys  are  not  responsible.  This  mistaken  zeal  rests  with  the 
coaches  and  primarily  with  the  principals  of  the  schools.    It 


286  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

is  a  condition  that  can  be  corrected  when  those  responsible 
have  the  wisdom  and  courage  to  place  the  welfare  of  the  boys 
above  the  false  pride  of  the  school  and  the  community. 

3.  Out  of  these  cases  of  over-emphasizing  the  glory  of  win- 
ning often  arises  non-educational  and  unethical  conduct  in  the 
form  of  unsportsmanlike  tricks  and  methods  on  the  part  of  the 
players  and  bad  manners  on  the  part  of  the  spectators.  When 
the  school  and  the  community  behind  it  become  imbued  with 
ideas  that  lead  to  immoral  and  discourteous  conduct,  consid- 
erable courage  and  determination  on  the  part  of  those  in  author- 
ity are  necessary.  But  such  a  condition  can  and  must  be 
changed,  for  the  good  of  all  concerned,  but  especially  for  the 
physical  and  moral  safety  of  the  boys.  In  the  first  place,  there 
is  no  excuse  for  such  a  state  of  affairs  to  develop;  and,  in  the 
second  place,  the  reformation  can  be  effected  and  the  traditions 
changed  by  the  united  effort  of  the  faculty,  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, and  a  few  influential  people  of  the  community,  whose 
influence  may  easily  be  secured.  If  there  is  no  other  way, 
athletics  must  be  discontinued  for  a  year  or  more,  so  that  all 
concerned  may  know  that  some  one  is  in  earnest  and  must  be 
reckoned  with,  and  so  that  the  undue  partisanship  may  have  a 
chance  to  subside.  The  author  knows  of  instances  where  this 
has  been  deemed  necessary;  but  in  his  own  experience  the  in- 
fluence of  the  faculty  and  the  coaches  of  the  schools  concerned, 
working  persistently  through  the  pupils,  has  been  sufficient  to 
effect  the  desired  change  and  establish  a  wholesome  attitude 
betweeen  old-time  rivals. 

The  following  experience  may  be  suggestive,  although  to 
some  readers  it  may  seem  a  rather  drastic  form  of  procedure. 
In  a  high  school  of  350  pupils,  where  every  one  supposed  ath- 
letic matters  were  well  in  hand  and  high  ideals  prevailed,  a 
hot-headed  captain,  displeased  with  what  appeared  to  be  a 
mistaken  decision  of  a  young  and  incompetent  official,  led  his 
team  off  the  field,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  the  teacher-coach. 


ATHLETICS  287 

The  next  Monday  morning  the  principal  called  the  long-dis- 
tance telephone  into  service  and  canceled  the  remaining  games 
of  the  season's  schedule.  It  seemed  to  the  principal  that  for 
the  good  of  the  boys,  as  well  as  the  influence  upon  the  school, 
a  little  discipline  was  more  important  than  completing  the 
schedule;  and  the  principals  of  the  other  schools  involved  saw 
the  matter  in  the  same  light.  The  results  appear  to  justify 
the  action  taken,  for  during  more  than  ten  years  following 
there  has  been  no  further  trouble. 

It  seems  to  many  that  athletics  rank  with  military  train- 
ing in  the  possibilities  afforded  for  thorough  and  effective  dis- 
cipline; and  athletics  have  the  advantage  in  the  fact  that  sub- 
mission to  rigid  discipline  is  more  voluntary  than  in  the  case 
of  military  training,  a  very  important  consideration  when  the 
nature  and  needs  of  the  adolescent  are  consulted. 

4.  Sometimes  it  is  charged  that  athletics  distract  the  boys 
from  their  studies  and  thus  create  a  serious  problem.  To  this 
it  may  be  said  that  (i)  education  is  not  wholly  a  matter  of 
studying  books  and  (2)  the  rules  of  eligibility  in  all  of  the 
states  where  interscholastic  athletics  have  been  given  thought- 
ful attention  are  so  framed  that  their  honest  and  rigid  enforce- 
ment makes  it  impossible  for  any  boy  to  neglect  his  school 
work  very  seriously  and  represent  the  school  on  its  teams. 
During  an  experience  of  twenty  years,  athletics  have  proved 
an  incentive  to  successful  school  work  as  well  as  to  gentlemanly 
conduct. 

5.  In  athletics,  as  in  all  other  vigorous  activities,  there  is 
constant  danger  of  physical  injury;  and  this  to  many,  especially 
the  mothers  of  the  boys,  seems  a  very  serious  consideration. 
It  is  the  boy  in  his  early  adolescence  that  is  most  liable  to  suffer 
physical  harm,  because  of  flabby  muscles,  loose  joints,  and 
lack  of  correlation;  but  nature  has  provided  pretty  carefully 
against  overeffort  during  this  awkward  age,  for  most  boys  at 
this  period  are  instinctively  lazy  and  are  thus  protected  against 


288  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

overexertion.  Of  course  boys  at  this  immature  stage  of  de- 
velopment must  not  be  allowed  to  take  part  in  the  more  stren- 
uous athletic  feats.  The  liability  to  physical  injuries  can  be 
greatly  decreased  by  barring  all  boys  whom  professional 
examination  shows  to  be  physically  unfit,  by  adequate  train- 
ing before  participating,  by  proper  equipment,  and  by  con- 
stantly reforming  the  rules  of  the  games  in  the  interest  of  the 
players.  All  of  these  precautions  are  being  employed  more 
and  more  as  experience  accumulates  and  school  authorities 
better  appreciate  the  problems  involved  in  modern  athletics. 
But,  when  everything  possible  has  been  done  to  safeguard 
against  physical  harm,  we  must  expect  accidents;  there  is  a 
risk  that  must  be  courageously  taken  whenever  life  is  lived  to 
its  full  possibilities  either  in  or  out  of  school;  and  "the  whole 
philosophy  of  youth,"  as  R.  S.  Bourne  tells  us,  "is  summed  up 
in  the  word.  Dare,"  and  there  is  no  daring  where  there  is  no 
danger.  Dr.  Hall  asserts  that  athletics  furnish  "a  wholesome 
vent  for  the  reckless  courage  that  would  otherwise  go  to  dis- 
order or  riotous  excess."  Better  an  occasional  broken  nose  or 
bone,  "or  the  sacrifice  of  an  occasional  life  of  our  best  academic 
youth  than  stagnation,  general  cynicism  and  censoriousness, 
bodily  and  psychic  cowardice,  and  moral  corruption,  if  this 
indeed  be,  as  it  sometimes  is,  its  real  alternative." 

Around  the  evils  and  dangers  just  discussed  center  most  of 
the  problems  that  must  be  met  and  solved  for  each  community 
according  to  the  local  conditions.  It  will  be  noted  that  most 
of  the  trouble  growing  out  of  athletics  is  not  due  to  any  ele- 
mental evil;  hence,  although  serious,  it  is  not  fundamental. 
The  difficulties  have  arisen  largely  from  the  propensity  of 
unregulated  adolescent  enthusiasm  to  overdo  and  from  uncon- 
trolled accompanying  influences  that  have  been  allowed  to  de- 
velop because  of  the  lack  of  competent  leadership.  Thus  there 
is  no  reason  for  discouragement  relative  to  the  final  outcome; 
success  depends  almost  entirely  upon  a  knowledge  of  adoles- 


ATHLETICS  289 

cent  boys  and  their  needs,  skill  in  meeting  these  needs,  and  abil- 
ity to  understand  and  make  the  most  of  local  conditions. 

rv 

Those  who  have  had  experience  with  high-school  athletics 
are  aware  that  both  the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of  the  con- 
testants and  the  success  of  the  teams  depend  very  largely  on 
the  all-round  efficiency  of  the  coach;  hence  the  coaching  prob- 
lem is  the  consideration  of  paramount  importance. 

Ever  since  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  furnish  a  coach 
for  high-school  athletics,  it  has  been  a  rather  common  practice 
to  secure  some  young  fellow  who  has  played  an  important 
position  on  a  big  university  team  or  has  won  his  "letter"  and 
give  him  full  responsibility  for  the  athletic  activities  and  the 
welfare  of  a  group  of  high-school  boys.  The  author  has  learned 
by  discouraging  experiences  the  dangers  and  troubles  that  are 
likely  to  accompany  this  method  of  procedure.  Very  seldom  is 
it  advisable  to  allow  any  one  not  a  member  of  the  regular  teach- 
ing force  to  coach  high-school  athletics.  It  is  not  generally 
safe  to  trust  this  important  and  delicate  piece  of  work  to  any  one 
who  has  only  a  temporary  interest  in  the  athletic  welfare  of  the 
school  or  who  is  only  interested  in  the  winning  of  games.  The 
permanent  interest  which  causes  the  wise  coach  to  look  forward 
in  his  planning  and  training  at  least  three  or  four  years  and  the 
deep  sense  of  responsibility  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  boys 
are  not  likely  to  be  found  in  any  one  outside  the  faculty.  Then, 
too,  a  coach  who  has  only  athletic  duties  connected  with  the 
school  cannot  be  expected  to  appreciate  the  place  of  athletics 
in  the  entire  school  program;  without  an  understanding  of  the 
true  place  of  athletics  in  the  whole  educational  aim  of  the  school 
there  will  be  apt  to  result  a  lack  of  unity  of  effort.  It  is  very  sel- 
dom that  any  one  can  be  found  for  whom  the  boys  will  feel 
the  same  respect  or  in  whom  they  will  have  as  much  confidence 
as  an  efficient  teacher  of  the  school.    Hence,  unless  it  is  pos- 


290  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

sible  to  employ  a  regular  physical  director,  it  seems  best  to 
trust  the  work  to  an  intelligent  young  teacher  who  is  willing 
to  interest  himself  in  the  branch  of  athletics  for  which  a  coach 
is  needed;  if  he  will  throw  himself  into  the  work  enthusiasti- 
cally and  be  sincere  in  his  dealings  with  the  boys,  knowledge  of 
the  game  and  skill  in  coaching  will  grow;  at  least  such  has  been 
the  experience  of  many  in  securing  coaches. 

It  is  true  there  are  other  qualifications  needed  besides  gen- 
eral intelligence  and  enthusiasm  for  the  work.    The  success- 
ful coach  must  have  the  ability  to  secure  the  hearty  coopera- 
tion of  the  boys;  and  it  is  important  that  he  or  some  one  should 
enlist  the  support  of  the  whole  school.     Any  one  responsible  for 
the  athletic  activities  of  a  high  school  should  have  at  least  such 
a  knowledge  of  adolescent  growth  and  periods  of  development 
as  is  included  in  the  adequate  training  of  a  secondary-school 
teacher,  that  he  may  be  able  to  watch  the  growth  of  the  body 
and  its  organs,  especially  the  heart,  and  to  discern  the  chang- 
ing capacities  and  needs  of  the  individual  players.    The  coach 
should  be  competent  to  give  every  boy  who  is  a  candidate  for 
a  place  on  any  of  the  school  teams  a  simple  heart  test;  if  this 
preliminary  test  shows  any  trouble  whatever,  the  boy  must 
be  sent  to  a  physician  for  a  careful  examination  before  he  is 
allowed  to  take  part  in  any  athletic  contest.    The  teacher  in 
charge  of  any  particular  branch  of  athletics  should  have  an 
interest  in  and  respect  for  all  kinds  of  physical  training;   the 
star  in  one  branch  often  lacks  athletic  perspective.    The  safe 
coach  must  be  embued  with  the  idea  that  athletics  are  pri- 
marily for  the  benefit  of  the  athlete,  and  not  for  the  pleasure  of 
the  spectators  or  the  glory  of  the  school;  educational  athletics 
are  the  only  kind  that  a  high  school  can  laudably  support. 
Above  all,  the  coach  must  stand  square  and  firm  on  all  moral 
issues;   his  ability  and  willingness  to  do  this  is  just  as  urgent 
as  his  knowledge  and  his  skill  in  the  technique  of  the  games. 
Whatever  the  type  of  coach,  he  must  have  the  cooperation 


ATHLETICS  291 

and  support  of  the  other  members  of  the  faculty,  especially  the 
principal;  and,  if  he  is  competent,  it  should  be  so  managed 
that  he  is  given  at  least  a  httle  extra  salary  on  account  of  his 
coaching.  It  is  very  fortunate  when  there  is  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  competent  men  on  the  teaching  staff  so  that  each  branch 
of  athletics  can  have  its  own  coach;  this  makes  the  work  less 
burdensome  on  any  one,  and  it  is  a  means  of  securing  the  interest 
and  influence  of  a  larger  number  of  men  for  this  important 
work.  If  the  men  who  do  the  coaching  are  effective  leaders  and 
men  of  character,  they  will  receive  a  very  satisfying  return  for 
their  services  in  the  form  of  increased  influence  and  apprecia- 
tion both  in  the  school  and  the  community  they  are  serving; 
they  will  have  inspiring  contact  with  life  at  its  most  fascinating 
period  of  development,  when  it  is  the  most  responsive  and 
when  the  seeds  that  are  sown  strike  root  most  deeply  and  bear 
fruit  most  quickly.  The  competent  and  s)anpathetic  coach 
always  has  a  valuable  asset  in  the  group  of  young,  enthusiastic 
companions  and  friends  with  whom  he  surrounds  himself. 


The  next  topic  to  be  discussed  is  one  on  which  school  men  and 
physical  directors  do  not  always  agree.  What  games  should 
be  played  by  the  high-school  boys;  and  what  factors  determine 
the  choice  of  these  games?  From  what  has  already  been  said, 
games  should  be  selected  that  will  help  to  develop  health, 
strength,  agility,  suppleness,  skill,  vigor,  speed,  endurance, 
physical  judgment,  decision,  virility,  cooperation,  restraint, 
self-sacrifice,  and  courage;  for  these  qualities  all  belong  to  the 
highest  type  of  manhood.  We  all  agree  on  the  qualities  desired 
but  not  on  the  games  that  are  best  suited  to  their  development. 
In  most  places  in  the  United  States  athletic  contests  are  con- 
fijied  to  football,  soccer,  basket-ball,  baseball,  tennis,  and  the 
various  track  and  field  events. 

I.  Football  without  doubt  receives  the  greatest  amount  of 


292  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

adverse  criticism.  It  is  objected  to  because  of  its  strenuous- 
ness  and  because  of  the  number  of  serious  accidents  resulting. 
It  is  strenuous  and  always  will  be,  like  any  form  of  physical 
contest  where  personal  contact  is  allowed.  But  for  those  who 
are  physically  fit  this  is  one  of  the  qualities  which  recommends 
the  game;  it  is  a  quaUty  which  appeals  strongly  to  nearly 
every  virile  youth,  to  those  seeking  their  highest  development, 
and  to  the  spectators.  Football  is  a  real  struggle  between 
peers.  It  is  doubtless  the  strenuous  qualities  of  the  game  that 
led  Dr.  Hall  to  characterize  it  as  *'a  magnificent  game  if  played 
on  honor."  No  game  better  provides  for  training  in  alertness, 
physical  judgment,  decision,  physical  and  moral  self-control, 
and  courage.  Here  the  able-bodied  youth  can  learn  to  fight 
imder  rules  and  supervision,  something  very  helpful  in  devel- 
oping his  sense  of  honor  and  courage  and  in  making  his 
masculinity  ring  true.  We  must  not  eradicate  the  fighting 
instinct  of  the  adolescent,  but  we  must  educate  and  temper 
it  aright.  We  must  furnish  some  means  to  the  passive,  hesi- 
tating, shrinking,  obstructed-will  type  of  boy  that  will  make 
vigorous  action  easy,  as  Professor  Home  expresses  it,  that  will 
"open  the  flood-gates  of  nervous  energy  and  connect  mental 
and  physical  reactions."  If  such  a  boy  can  only  be  induced 
to  play  the  game,  he  will  be  sure  to  gain  in  confidence.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  boy  with  the  precipitate  will,  who  tends  to 
express  himself  in  unrestrained  action,  very  much  needs  the 
discipline  of  some  kind  of  strenuous  contest  where  there  is  a 
real  clash  of  wills  and  where  law  and  authority  must  control; 
his  overimpulsiveness,  conceit,  and  natural  adolescent  self- 
assertion  greatly  need  the  rigid  discipline  of  the  gridiron. 

Perhaps  one  piece  of  expert  testimony  will  help  us  to  imder- 
stand.  This  is  the  way  Victor  Kennard  sums  up  what  he  owes 
to  football.  "I  learned  to  control  my  temper,  to  exercise  judg- 
ment, to  think  quickly  and  act  decisively.  I  learned  the  mean- 
ing of  disciphne,  to  take  orders  and  carry  them  out  to  the  best 


ATHLETICS  293 

of  my  ability  without  asking  why.  I  had  through  the  training 
regular  habits  knocked  into  me.  I  learned  to  meet,  know,  and 
size  up  men.  I  learned  to  smile  when  I  was  the  most  discour- 
aged fellow  in  this  great  wide  world,  the  importance  of  being 
on  time,  a  better  control  of  my  nerves,  and  to  demand  the 
respect  of  my  fellow-players.  I  learned  to  work  out  problems 
for  myself,  and  to  apply  my  energy  more  intelligently  —  to 
stick  by  the  ship.  I  secured  a  wide  friendship  which  money 
cannot  buy."  Here  are  about  fourteen  benefits  that  Mr. 
Kennard  claims  he  derived  from  playing  football,  all  of  which 
tend  toward  the  highest  success  in  almost  any  human  activity. 

To  guard  against  injuries  occurring  in  football  there  are  at 
least  five  things  that  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  taking  precau- 
tion: boys  can  be  kept  out  of  the  games  played  by  the  regular 
team  against  other  schools  until  they  are  pretty  well  along  in 
middle  adolescence,  thus  avoiding  the  more  vigorous  and  dan- 
gerous contests;  they  can  be  kept  out  of  interschool  games 
until  they  have  been  taught  what  to  do  when  tackled  vigorously 
and  in  general  how  to  care  for  themselves  in  the  heat  of  the 
game;  they  can  be  kept  out  or  taken  out  of  the  game  when  not 
in  good  physical  condition,  including  cases  of  extreme  fatigue 
(recent  changes  in  the  rules  make  it  convenient  to  do  this); 
they  can  be  properly  dressed  and  equipped  for  protection; 
and  they  can  be  taught  to  make  a  liberal  use  of  open  plays  for 
advancing  the  ball.  The  rules  are  being  improved  from  time 
to  time  in  such  a  way  as  to  encourage  open  formations  and  thus 
lessen  the  dangers  that  accompany  mass  plays. 

2.  Soccer  is  a  splendid  game,  much  in  favor  with  principals 
and  others  who  have  an  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  boys, 
but  not  adequate  thus  far  to  take  the  place  of  regular  football 
in  the  minds  of  the  more  vigorous  adolescent  boys  or  the  spec- 
tators. It  is  a  game  in  which  the  mere  size  and  weight  of  the 
player  do  not  count  very  much;  it  develops  skill  and  alertness; 
it  calls  for  quick  decisions  and  cooperation;  it  cultivates  self- 


294  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

assertion;  and  it  is  free  from  the  dangers  of  mass  plays  and 
tackling.  It  is  a  game  that  can  be  played  by  boys  at  twelve 
and  continued  to  almost  any  age.  If  soccer  can  be  made  pop- 
ular, much  benefit  may  be  derived  from  it,  and  it  may  be  used 
to  furnish  preliminary  training  for  regular  football. 

3.   Basket-ball  is  the  only  vigorous  winter  game  that  has 
made  a  very  strong  appeal  in  this  country  to  either  athletes  or 
spectators.     It  provides  a  place  for  a  different  type  of  athlete; 
the  quick,  wiry  boy  with  strong  arms  and  shoulders  can  soon 
learn  to  play  the  game  successfully  if  he  can  be  taught  to  use 
his  mind  and  muscles  properly.     Basket-ball  has  nearly  all 
the  advantages  of  lacrosse,  which  is  an  excellent  game  for  nearly 
any  type  of  boy,  but  not  yet  played  much  in  this  country. 
From  the  standpoint  of  health,  basket-ball  is  not  so  desirable 
for  either  players  or  spectators,  since  it  is  usually  played  in- 
doors.    It  is  a  game  that  needs  very  careful  regulating,  because 
it  puts  a  great  strain  on  the  heart;  this  tendency  becomes  less 
as  the  players  become  expert  and  depend  on  skilful  passing  of 
the  ball  instead  of  constant  running.     Basket-ball  appeals  to 
adolescent  boys,  because  it  is  strenuous  and  demands  a  high 
degree  of  self-control  and  cooperation;   and  it  appeals  to  the 
spectators,  because  the  rules  of  the  game  are  easily  understood, 
nearly  all  that  happens  on  the  floor  can  be  readily  seen,  and  the 
spectators  can  be  comfortably  seated  during  the  game.     It 
is  a  game  that  can  be  made  a  splendid  training  in  self-sacrifice 
and  loyalty;   for  the  highest  success  demands  perfectly  devel- 
oped teamwork,  as  distinguished  from  individual  starring  on 
the  part  of  the  players.     Basket-ball  calls  for  perfect  heart 
action,  hence  the  coach  should  be  very  watchful  of  the  condi- 
tion of  his  players.     Healthy  boys  can  begin  playing  basket- 
ball at  twelve  years  of  age  and  continue  till  maturity. 

4.  According  to  Hall,  baseball  "represents  activities  that 
were  once  and  for  a  long  time  necessary  for  survival,"  "muscular 
coordinations  that  have  been  of  great  racial  utility;"  the  "run- 


ATHLETICS  295 

ning  and  dodging  with  speed  and  endurance,  and  hitting  with 
a  club,  were  all  basal  in  hunting  and  fighting."    Because  of 
its  ancient  phylogenetic  origin,  if  one  accepts  Gulick's  theory, 
baseball  is  very  interesting  to  adolescents  of  all  ages;    and, 
because  of  the  many  forms  of  skill,  accuracy,  and  judgment 
demanded,  it  offers  most  excellent  psychoneural  and  mus- 
cular training,  thus  contributing  much  toward  perfecting  the 
whole  organism.     Baseball  can  be  played  safely  and  success- 
fully from  the  age  of  ten  to  thirty;  and  it  can  be  made  helpful 
to  any  type  of  athlete.     Because  the  game  is  not  as  strenuous 
as  the  other  cooperative  games,  boys  are  inclined  to  think 
that  a  rigid  observance  of  the  laws  of  health  is  not  so  necessary 
in  baseball;  hence  one  of  the  first  duties  of  the  coach  should  be 
to  clear  up  the  boys'  thinking  on  this  matter.    The  high  de- 
gree of  accuracy  and  control  demanded  by  certain  features  of 
the  game  implies  that  the  smaller  muscles  and  their  corres- 
ponding nerve  centers  must  work  with  perfect  coordination; 
and  many  recent  experiments  in  educational  psychology  have 
proved  that  these  finer  adjustments,  calling  for  nerve-control 
of  the  smaller  muscles,  are  the  first  to  be  affected  by  any  change 
in  the  physical  condition;   success  in  batting  is  especially  de- 
pendent upon  both  physical  and  mental  tone,  since  all  the 
smaller  muscles  connected  with  vision  are  concerned.    It  is 
often  difficult  to  get  boys  to  realize  the  relation  between  the 
habits  which  affect  health  and  their  success  in  baseball,  because 
they  are  not  able  to  "feel"  the  lack  of  tonicity  that  produces 
the  imfavorable  results  in  their  playing.     It  was  only  by  a 
long  series  of  experiments,  so  arranged  that  the  effect  of  phys- 
ical condition  on  the  more  deUcate  coordinations  could  be  defi- 
nitely measured,  that  the  actual  facts  concerning  motor  control 
were  brought  to  light.    Thus  the  educational  possibilities  of 
baseball  are  important  and  numerous. 

5.  Training  for  the  various  track  events  may  be  made  to 
contribute  much  to  the  health  and  physical  effectiveness  of 


296  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

nearly  all  boys,  although  they  are  not  so  rich  in  possibilities 
for  mental,  social,  and  moral  development.  Because  the  so- 
cial and  cooperative  elements  are  somewhat  lacking,  much 
enthusiasm  and  ability  to  impart  enthusiasm  are  needed  on 
the  part  of  the  coach.  The  different  races  differ  considerably 
as  to  the  age  at  which  they  can  be  safely  entered  and  the  length 
of  the  training  period  needed;  in  general  the  long  rims  require 
more  maturity  and  longer  training.  Sprinting  can  be  safely 
started  at  twelve;  low  hurdles,  at  fourteen;  high  hurdles,  at 
sixteen;  and  the  distance  runs  had  better  be  postponed  till 
seventeen  or  later.  There  are  sound  physiological  and  struc- 
tural reasons  for  all  these  statements.  All  matters  of  health, 
including  especially  the  condition  of  the  heart,  must  be  super- 
vised by  the  coach,  as  in  other  forms  of  athletics. 

The  ages  favorable  to  participation  in  the  usual  high-school 
field  events  are,  according  to  a  chart  prepared  by  Dr.  Naismith 
of  the  University  of  Kansas,  as  follows:  Broad  and  high  jump, 
the  entire  period  of  adolescence;  discus  throwing  and  pole 
vaulting,  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five;  javelin  and  hammer 
throwing,  from  eighteen  to  maturity  (the  latter  may  well  be 
omitted  because  of  danger  to  the  spectators);  a  well  built 
boy  can  begin  putting  the  shot  at  seventeen.  The  individual 
equipment  for  these  track  and  field  events  is  easily  obtained 
and  any  number  can  be  trained  to  advantage. 

6.  Whenever  possible  a  high  school  should  have  tennis 
courts,  the  number  depending  on  the  size  of  the  school.  The 
age  at  which  boys  and  girls  enter  the  senior  high  school  is  just 
the  right  time  to  learn  to  play  tennis.  It  is  a  game  suited  to 
the  needs  of  practically  every  one,  for  it  can  be  made  as  vigor- 
ous as  the  players  desire.  The  game  affords  splendid  motor 
training  under  very  healthful  conditions.  It  is  free  from  the 
dangers  of  other  forms  of  athletics;  and  there  is  very  little 
necessary  expense  after  the  courts  are  provided.  Expert 
coaching  is  not  necessary;  and  tennis  playing  is  easily  encour- 


ATHLETICS  297 

aged,  the  interest  and  attention  of  some  member  of  the  faculty 
being  all  that  is  needed.  Various  tournaments  should  be  ar- 
ranged within  the  school  and  as  many  as  practicable  with  other 
schools. 

Because  of  the  great  variety  of  physical  needs,  abilities,  and 
tastes,  and  because  adolescence  is  the  time  when  individual 
differences  make  their  appearance  and  when  each  function  as 
it  appears  must  be  exercised  if  the  greatest  effectiveness  is  to 
be  attained,  a  high  school  should  encourage  and  support  as 
many  forms  of  athletic  activity  as  possible.  If  there  is  to  be 
vigorous  interschool  competition,  it  is  necessary  to  be  guided 
somewhat  in  the  selection  of  the  kind  of  games  by  the  forms 
of  athletics  in  vogue  in  the  near-by  schools;  in  order  to  secure 
the  chief  benefits  of  athletics,  the  competitive  and  social  el- 
ements, which  appeal  to  the  instincts  and  the  emotions,  must 
not  be  lacking;  no  series  of  interclass  games  will  arouse  the 
interest  and  secure  the  effort  in  the  form  of  careful  training 
that  results  from  interschool  competition.  The  interschool 
contests  are  fraught  with  both  some  danger  and  unusual 
possibilities.  It  is  worth  much  to  learn  early  in  life  to  treat 
an  opponent  with  courtesy  and  consideration,  a  very  difficult 
lesson  when  the  contest  is  one  that  calls  for  the  utmost  effort 
of  those  opposing  each  other.  The  visiting  team  must  be 
considered  the  honored  guests  of  the  home  team  and  the  school, 
and  all  the  relationships  involved  must  be  governed  by  this 
idea.  Frequently  both  the  members  of  the  team  and  the  school 
have  much  to  learn  concerning  the  proper  treatment  of  the 
officials;  partisanship  naturally  runs  high  and  trying  condi- 
tions arise;  but  this  only  furnishes  a  better  test  of  conduct 
from  the  standpoint  of  sportsmanship  and  courtesy. 

When  possible  there  should  be  arranged  "second  team" 
or  "light  weight"  games,  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  a 
larger  number  of  pupils  to  participate  and  to  provide  an  or- 
ganized team  to  play  against  the  regular  school  team.    The 


298  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

degree  of  benefit  derived  from  the  different  athletic  games  can 
be  pretty  safely  judged  by  the  degree  of  interest,  spontaneity, 
and  zest  which  each  arouses. 

VI 

In  conclusion,  it  seems  best  to  add  a  word  concerning  the 
management  of  high-school  athletics;  for  here  problems  are 
involved  that  must  not  be  neglected  if  troubles  are  to  be  avoided 
and  the  best  results  obtained. 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  school,  it  will  be  an  advantage  to 
organize  an  athletic  association.  This  organization  should 
include  in  its  membership  all  pupils  that  can  be  interested  in 
athletics  or  that  are  willing  to  aid  in  their  support.  This 
association  is  a  means  of  increasing  the  unifying  influence  of 
athletics  upon  the  school:  it  gives  every  one  who  wishes  it  a 
voice  in  deciding  a  few  things  with  regard  to  the  management 
of  the  athletics  of  the  school  and  provides  for  organized  finan- 
cial support.  If  the  association  is  large,  as  it  should  be  in  a 
large  high  school,  it  is  likely  to  become  unwieldy  for  purposes 
of  thorough  discussion  and  careful  decisions,  and  it  does  not 
provide   a   means   of   definitely    fixing  responsibility. 

These  difficulties  may  be  overcome  by  organizing  a  smaller 
group  within  the  association  with  more  power,  to  be  known  by 
some  such  name  as  the  "athletic  council,"  and  composed  of  the 
president  of  the  athletic  association,  the  captains  of  the  various 
teams,  the  coaches,  and  the  principal  of  the  school.  The  duties 
and  powers  of  the  association  and  the  council  should  be  care- 
fully defined  by  a  written  constitution  and  by-laws,  prepared 
by  the  joint  efforts  of  representatives  of  both  the  pupils  and 
the  faculty.  Besides  placing  responsibility  and  securing  in- 
terest and  support,  the  athletic  council  furnishes  in  a  small 
way  the  very  best  kind  of  training  in  business  methods  and  ad- 
ministration; the  influence  of  membership  in  the  council  is 
most  wholesome  in  the  case  of  the  naturally  troublesome  boy; 


ATHLETICS  299 

and  it  provides  a  natural  channel  through  which  a  principal 
may  learn  and  create  sentiment.  The  council  may  well  have  as 
one  of  its  functions  the  awarding  of  athletic  honors,  such  as  the 
school  "letters;"  and  it  should  have  the  power  to  recommend 
many  matters  of  policy  to  the  association  for  final  action.  The 
author  has  found  an  organization  like  the  one  described  the 
very  best  means  of  keeping  closely  in  touch  with  the  whole 
athletic  situation. 

There  are  a  few  very  important  and  definite  duties  connected 
with  the  management  of  high-school  athletics  for  which  the 
principal  alone  must  be  held  responsible.  It  is  his  duty  to 
make  sure  that  the  rules  of  eligibility  are  strictly  observed  both 
in  letter  and  in  spirit.  He  can  create  such  a  sentiment  in  his 
school  that  it  will  be  considered  a  serious  breach  of  loyalty 
to  the  team  and  the  school  on  the  part  of  any  athlete  to  lose 
his  eligibility  because  of  low  grades  or  imsportsmanlike  con- 
duct; and  social  pressure  is  a  powerful  influence  with  ado- 
lescents. 

The  principal,  too,  can  arrange  for  mass  meetings  just  before 
important  games;  nearly  all  details  should  be  planned  by 
representative  pupils;  and  these  meetings  can  be  made  a  strong 
unifying  influence  and  a  source  of  much  wholesome  school 
spirit  and  enthusiasm.  To  be  effective  the  meetings  must  be 
carefully  planned,  the  program  consisting  of  school  songs  and 
songs  written  for  the  occasion,  speaking  by  members  of  the 
team,  coach,  and  others,  and  vigorous,  well-directed  cheering. 
One  of  the  important  by-products  of  such  meetings  is  the  abil- 
ity in  public  speaking  that  the  boys  cultivate  during  their 
four  years  in  high  school.  It  is  at  these  meetings  that  the  prin- 
cipal and  coaches  can  inculcate  ideals  of  courtesy  to  the  oppos- 
ing team  and  school;  the  pupils  must  be  made  to  feel  that  any 
exhibition  of  discourtesy  on  their  part  will  bring  more  disgrace 
to  the  school  than  the  defeat  of  their  team.  Very  often  it  is 
well  to  arrange  a  mass  meeting  after  a  significant  victory  when 


300  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

an  opportunity  is  given  to  the  school  to  express  appreciation 
of  the  players  and  the  coach. 

The  teachers,  both  men  and  women,  have  much  to  gain  from 
the  athletics  of  the  school.  It  is  diflScult  for  those  teachers 
who  have  entered  sympathetically  into  the  spirit  of  athletics 
and  the  excitement  and  the  fascination  which  sway  the  stu- 
dent body  to  understand  why  any  teacher  who  is  working  for 
and  living  with  the  pupils  as  boys  and  girls  should  forego  the 
invigorating  pleasure  and  increased  influence  that  comes  from 
being  one  in  spirit  with  all  this  youthful  enthusiasm.  A  teacher 
must  be  strong  indeed  who  can  afford  to  ignore  this  source  of 
inspiration  and  influence. 

Just  a  final  word  concerning  the  importance  of  the  matters 
discussed  in  this  chapter  growing  out  of  the  demands  and  con- 
ditions imposed  by  our  latest  scientific,  social,  and  industrial 
developments,  (i)  Because  of  modem  knowledge  relative  to 
childhood  and  its  needs,  many  adolescents  are  today  in  our 
schools  that  would  formerly  have  died  during  babyhood;  and 
these  are  naturally  not  the  most  robust.  Although  medical 
science  has  made  wonderful  progress  in  reducing  the  number  of 
deaths  due  to  zymotic  diseases,  the  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system  are  rapidly  increasing.  (2)  Society  in  general  has  be- 
come so  complex  and  so  stimulating  in  its  effects  on  the  indi- 
vidual that  the  strain  has  increased  more  rapidly  than  any  coun- 
teracting influences  have  been  provided.  (3)  The  conquest  of 
nature  and  the  accumulation  of  wealth  have  come  to  be  the 
prime  motives  in  modern  civilization.  (4)  Many  communi- 
ties are  looking  to  the  junior  and  senior  high  schools  to  furnish 
vocational  knowledge  and  training,  which  means  that  many 
of  the  smaller  muscles  and  finer  adjustments  are  called  upon  to 
function  rather  than  the  fundamental  muscles,  whose  exercise 
is  so  closely  related  to  health.  Now,  all  educators  are  fully 
persuaded  and  they  often  assert  that  health  is  more  important 
than  any  kind  of  knowledge  or  skill;   yet  many  of  the  schools 


ATHLETICS  301 

have  been  discouragingly  slow  in  adjusting  their  curriculums 
and  their  practice  to  the  new  conditions  and  the  changed  needs 
of  the  pupils.  If  the  analysis  of  the  functions  of  the  various 
forms  of  high-school  athletics  given  in  this  chapter  is  accurate, 
then  it  would  appear  that  we  have  already  developed  in  many 
places  the  natural  and  proper  correctives  for  the  unfavorable 
tendencies  and  influences  of  modern  civilization  and  its  demands. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  make  our  practice  agree  with  our 
theory;  give  the  big  muscles  of  the  trunk,  legs,  and  arms 
plenty  of  vigorous  exercise,  bringing  into  action  the  lower  nerve 
centers,  thus  securing  the  positive  hygienic  effects  desired,  as 
well  as  all  the  mental  and  moral  qualities  that  are  the  natural 
outcome  of  properly  managed  team  athletics.  If  this  can  be 
accomplished,  a  vital  high-school  problem  will  have  found 
solution. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
PUPIL   FINANCE 

The  problem  discussed  in  this  chapter  is  one  of  some  impor- 
tance in  all  high  schools  and  of  much  importance  in  the  larger 
schools;  its  importance  grows  out  of  the  opportunities  for  bus- 
iness training  connected  with  the  financing  of  the  various  pupil 
activities,  and  the  possibilities  for  rather  serious  troubles  when 
the  business  management  of  pupil  organizations  receives  no 
attention  from  the  faculty.  Twice  in  the  author's  high-school 
experience,  very  embarrassing  situations  have  arisen  in  connec- 
tion with  the  handling  of  funds  belonging  to  pupil  organiza- 
tions, due  to  neglect  and  lack  of  system;  the  plan  here  pre- 
sented grew  out  of  the  need  which  these  troubles  made  evident. 

In  Chapter  VII,  attention  was  called  to  the  many  subtile 
devices  which  modern  society  has  developed  and  the  many 
traps  which  liiodern  commercialism  has  set  for  the  on-coming 
generations  of  youth,  all  intended  to  cater  to  and  take  advan- 
tage of  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  adolescent.  These  snares 
and  devices  come  in  the  form  of  public  dances,  movies,  vaude- 
ville, suggestive  songs,  emotional  literature,  pictures  border- 
ing on  the  obscene,  and  other  stimuli  that  appeal  to  sex  suscep- 
tibility. Modern  society  has  been  very  skilful  and  modern 
commercialism  has  been  very  bold  in  the  exploitation  of  ado- 
lescence. The  boy  who  is  just  entering  manhood  naturally 
desires  to  "know  all  and  do  all  befitting  man's  estate."  Now, 
nearly  every  form  of  appeal  that  surrounds  the  adolescent 
makes  an  ever-increasing  demand  for  his  money,  so  that  money 
soon  comes  to  be  the  equivalent  in  his  mind  of  the  most  fasci- 
nating social  enjoyment;  hence  the  desire  to  have  and  the  temp- 

302 


PUPIL  FINANCE 


303 


tation  to  spend  money  become  very  powerful,  especially  with  the 
boy  in  urban  or  suburban  communities.  Thus  it  comes  about 
that  the  possession  of  indefinite  amounts  of  money  belonging 
to  others  gives  rise  to  a  serious  and  dangerous  situation  in  the 
case  of  a  boy  with  spirit.  If  he  has  reached  middle  adolescence, 
he  is  in  the  midst  of  his  grand  struggle  for  self-reliance;  if  he  is 
well  brought  up,  he  wishes  to  be  honest;  but  the  inner  alle- 
giance is  still  very  fickle,  and  he  still  feels  strongly  the  pull  of 
primitive  impulses  and  hears  the  reverberation  of  the  predatory 
life  of  the  tribal  and  feudal  ancestors  whose  psychic  life  he  is 
recapitulating.  It  is  not  strange  that  statistics  show  that 
early  and  middle  adolescence  together  constitute  the  period 
most  prolific  in  the  beginnings  of  crime.  One-fifth  to  one-fourth 
of  the  several  groups  representing  respectable  people  studied 
by  E.  J.  Swift  acknowledged  that  they  had  taken  money  or 
articles  of  value  during  their  youth. 

In  the  light  of  the  foregoing,  it  is  apparent  that  the  average 
high-school  pupil  who  handles  funds  for  which  there  is  no 
strict  system  of  accounting  is  often  tempted  beyond  what  many 
adults  are  able  to  withstand.  This  is  contrary  to  both  sound 
psychology  and  sound  pedagogy.  Moral  conduct  should  al- 
ways be  made  easy,  especially  during  the  formative  period, 
for  the  early  stages  of  the  process  now  under  way  constitute  a 
real  will-crisis.  Then,  too,  on  the  positive  side,  there  is  ofifered 
in  the  financing  of  the  various  pupil  activities  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  concrete  business  training  that  should  not  be  neglec- 
ted. The  plan  which  follows  proved  very  satisfactory  in  a 
suburban  high  school  of  five  hundred  pupils,  where  the  amount 
of  money  involved  ranged  between  two  and  three  thousand 
dollars  per  year  and  the  organizations  included  in  the  arrange- 
ment numbered  about  fifteen. 

For  the  plan  here  recommended  only  two  officers,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  officers  of  the  various  organizations,  are  needed; 
these  may  be  called  "general  accountant"  and  "general  treas- 


304  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

urer."    It  is  best  that  these  officers  be  members  of  the  faculty, 
especially  the  general  treasurer.    The  general  accountant  is 
provided  with  a  small  ledger,  and  each  organization  is  assigned 
a  page  in  the  ledger.     Besides  the  usual  check  book  and  pass 
book  furnished  by  banks,  the  general  treasurer  is  provided 
with  a  receipt  book  and  a  deposit  book.     The  treasurers  of 
the  different  organizations  are  furnished  with  uniform  receipt 
books.    The  pupils  are  instructed  not  to  pay  any  dues,  initia- 
tion fees,  or  other  money  to  any  one  without  taking  a  receipt. 
The  money  received  by  the  various  treasurers  is  paid  to  the 
general  treasurer  and  a  receipt  given  by  him  every  time  a  pay- 
ment is  made.     Once  or  twice  a  week  the  money  in  the  hands 
of  the  general  treasurer  is  deposited  in  a  bank  and  credited  to 
the  "student-activity  fund;"  at  each  time  of  deposit,  the  gen- 
eral treasurer  enters  in  the  deposit  book  the  date  of  deposit 
and  the  amount  that  each  organization  has  in  the  day's  de- 
posit.   This  completes  the  receiving  part  of  the  arrangement. 
No  money  is  paid  out  except  by  checks  drawn  by  the  general 
treasurer  by  order  of  the  individual  treasurers.    The  check- 
book stub  shows,  besides  the  date  and  the  amount  drawn,  the 
name  of  the  organization  ordering  the  payment  and  the  purpose 
for  which  the  money  was  paid.    Thus  there  are  three  records 
of  all  money  paid  out, —  that  of  the  treasurer  whose  funds  are 
drawn  upon,  that  of  the  general  treasurer,  and  that  of  the 
bank. 

At  the  end  of  each  school  month  the  general  accountant  com- 
pares the  general  treasurer's  pass  book  and  deposit  book  to 
see  that  they  agree,  and  makes  up  his  ledger  from  the  check 
book  and  deposit  book,  thus  showing  the  credit  and  debit 
sides  of  the  account  of  each  organization.  The  accountant's 
monthly  report  shows  the  amount  received  by  the  general  treas- 
urer from  each  organization,  the  amount  paid  out,  and  the 
balance  on  hand.  Three  copies  of  this  report  are  made  and 
signed  by  the  general  accountant  and  general  treasurer;   one 


PUPIL  FINANCE       '  305 

is  sent  to  the  school  paper  for  publication,  one  is  placed  on  the 
school  bulletin  board,  and  the  other  is  printed  in  a  local  paper. 
Publicity  is  almost  as  important  as  competent  accounting. 

At  the  end  of  each  semester  the  account  books  and  receipt 
books  of  the  various  pupil-treasurers  are  taken  to  the  office, 
and  the  accounts  audited  by  a  committee  composed  of  a  pupil, 
the  general  accountant,  and  the  general  treasurer.  Of  the 
report  of  this  committee  three  copies  are  made,  signed  by  the 
committee,  and  published  in  the  same  manner  as  the  monthly 
reports  of  the  general  accountant. 

As  here  described  this  plan  may  appear  somewhat  cumber- 
some and  it  may  seem  to  involve  some  red-tape;  but  in  actual 
practice  such  is  not  the  case.  The  general  treasurer  has  a 
little  work  to  do  nearly  every  day,  receiving  money,  writing 
receipts  and  checks,  and  making  deposits  at  the  bank;  but  he 
is  the  only  one  involved  in  the  scheme  whose  extra  work  is 
worthy  of  mention.  However,  the  extra  work  which  the  plan 
imposes  is  very  small  compared  with  the  troubles  resulting 
from  careless  accounting  or  dishonesty  that  are  pretty  sure 
to  come  sooner  or  later.  Although  this  plan  was  first  worked 
out  for  the  sole  purpose  of  guarding  against  mistakes  and  dis- 
honesty, the  author  is  convinced  that  this,  or  something 
like  it,  has  sufficient  educational  value  to  warrant  all  the  extra 
work  it  brings  to  those  concerned.  Where.it  was  tried,  benefits 
and  advantages  grew  out  of  it  that  no  one  had  thought  of, 
especially  the  publicity  feature  of  the  scheme.  Frequently 
members  of  the  various  organizations  came  to  the  office  to 
inquire  into  the  purposes  for  which  so  much  money  had  been 
spent  during  the  month;  the  inquiry  was  always  met  by  simply 
handing  over  the  general  treasurer's  check  book.  No  explana- 
tion is  needed  to  show  the  wholesome  effect  of  the  interest  thus 
aroused.  It  will  be  noted  that  no  responsibility  is  taken  from 
the  pupils  or  their  representatives  (which  would  be  a  serious 
weakness),  since  the  general  treasurer  does  not  pay  out  any 


306  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

money  without  a  written  order  from  a  pupil-treasurer.  There 
is  no  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  that  they  are  being  treated 
with  doubt  or  suspicion,  for  it  is  simply  an  ordinary  business 
arrangement,  providing  a  system  of  checks  and  counter-checks 
between  representatives  of  the  pupils  and  of  the  faculty. 

Nothing  original  or  ingenious  is  claimed  for  this  scheme; 
it  is  here  given  merely  as  an  example  of  a  little  piece  of  school 
machinery  that  will  aid  the  adolescents  to  keep  right  morally; 
for  in  the  last  analysis  moral  training  is  largely  a  matter  of 
conditions. 


CHAPTER  XVn 

ASSEMBLY 

In  nearly  all  languages  there  are  certain  satisfying  words 
and  phrases  which  are  used  to  express  the  idea  of  unity  of  spirit 
or  purpose.  The  French  effectively  express  this  idea  of  mutual 
interest  and  sense  of  unity  among  the  individuals  of  a  group 
when  they  say,  esprit  de  corps.  These  various  forms  of  expres- 
sion are  satisfying  because  they  describe  a  mental  and  moral 
condition  much  desired.  When  there  is  imity  of  spirit,  the 
individual  grows  more  effective  because  he  becomes  more  than 
an  individual;  he  is  a  member  of  a  body  all  parts  of  which  are 
inspired  by  a  common  purpose;  as  such,  he  is  raised  above 
his  own  individual  self;  and  he  gains  new  enthusiasm,  hope, 
and  confidence.  Military  leaders  have  always  placed  high 
value  on  the  morale  of  their  armies.  During  recent  years  the 
modem  high  school  has  learned  the  value  of  esprit  de  corps. 
We  know  that  the  success  of  the  school  as  a  whole  is  largely 
determined  by  the  imity  of  spirit  and  effort  which  pervades 
the  student  body;  and  the  social  and  moral  welfare  of  the  in- 
dividual pupil  is  more  dependent  upon  the  harmony  of  in- 
fluences resulting  from  a  real  esprit  de  corps  than  is  generally 
realized.  As  Dr.  Bagley  expresses  it,  "social  stability  demands 
a  certain  likemindedness, —  or,  better,  a  rather  complete  re- 
semblance among  individuals  in  respect  of  dominant  conduct- 
controls."  The  likemindedness  of  the  group  results  in  social 
stability,  because  it  adds  wonderfully  to  all  the  satisfying  and 
stimulating  influences;  the  various  pressures  of  the  social 
atmosphere  become  at  once  bracing  and  quieting.  This  is 
true  in  general  whenever  human  beings  come  together  for  a 

307 


3o8  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

common  purpose;  but,  because  of  the  rapidly  dawning  social 
instincts,  adolescents  are  extremely  eager  to  be  one  in  spirit 
and  unitedly  to  serve  a  common  cause.  Without  this  privilege, 
they  are  likely  to  be  turbulent;  and  the  highest  opportunity 
for  training  in  loyalty  is  lost. 

There  is  doubtless  little  difference  of  opinion  with  respect 
to  the  foregoing  statements.  The  whole  problem  is,  how  can 
this  desirable  unity  of  spirit  and  purpose  be  secured?  In  gen- 
eral it  will  be  agreed  that  this  sense  of  unity,  if  present,  is  likely 
to  have  its  origin  in  some  one  with  a  dej&nite  and  consistent 
purpose  in  mind,  whose  influence  is  sufficient  to  control  the  so- 
cial forces  at  work.  As  the  American  high  school  is  at  present 
organized  and  administered,  this  function  belongs  primarily 
to  the  principal;  and  the  successful  principal  makes  use  of  very 
many  means  of  unifying  his  school.  This  is  fundamental  in 
the  solution  of  high-school  problems,  as  the  reader  has  fre- 
quently been  reminded.  But  there  is  one  means  which  is 
not  really  appreciated  by  many  principals;  only  a  few  seem  to 
make  full  use  of  the  school  assembly  for  this  purpose;  this 
appears  evident  both  from  the  nature  of  the  exercises  and  from 
the  subordinate  place  that  the  general  assembly  seems  to  oc- 
cupy in  directing  the  conduct  and  efiforts  of  the  student  body. 
It  is  with  this  idea  in  mind  that  this  short  chapter  is  given 
a  place  in  these  discussions  of  high-school  problems. 

If  the  possibiUties  of  the  school  assembly  are  as  great  as  is 
here  implied,  what  happens  at  this  time  is  worthy  of  consid- 
erable thought  and  effort  on  the  part  of  many  connected  with 
the  school.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  following  discussion 
is  intended  to  be  merely  suggestive;  as  always,  conditions  and 
available  means  must  determine  procedure.  The  purpose  of 
the  chapter  will  be  accomplished  if  it  stimulates  or  directs 
thought  and  effort  in  the  direction  indicated. 

There  are  three  quaUties  that,  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
pupils,  should  characterize  the  programs  of  the  school  assem- 


ASSEMBLY  309 

bly;  they  should  be  interesting,  instructive,  and  inspiring, 
(i)  The  first  quality  must  always  obtain;  we  must  never  be 
satisfied  with  giving  the  pupils  something  "they  ought  to  en- 
joy." Unless  the  exercises  are  interesting  and  pleasant  from 
the  pupils'  point  of  view,  the  whole  affair  is  an  imposition; 
we  take  an  unfair  advantage  when,  by  reason  of  our  authority, 
we  force  pupils  to  give  attention  to  a  program  that  does  not 
meet  their  real  interests.  With  this  first  and  most  important 
quality  we  should,  as  far  as  possible,  unite  one  or  both  of  the 
other  two.  (2)  It  is  easy  to  provide  program  material  that 
is  instructive;  but  much  thought  and  sympathetic  effort  are 
required  to  furnish  material  that  is  instructive  to  young  people 
of  high-school  age.  We  must  beware  of  giving  the  pupils 
something  that  "they  ought  to  know."  Here  again  we  are  in 
danger  of  imposing  our  adult  ideas.  (3)  If  we  judge  from  the 
testimony  that  has  been  collected  by  several  students  of  high- 
school  ideals  and  interests,  it  would  seem  that  in  after  years 
the  thing  that  is  cherished  with  greatest  gratitude  by  former 
pupils  is  the  inspiration  that  they  received  from  their  teachers 
and  others  connected  with  their  high-school  life.  If  some  one 
can  be  found  who  is  able  to  bring  an  inspiring  message  to  the 
pupils  during  the  general  assembly  period,  nothing  better  can 
be  done  for  the  individual  pupils  and  the  school  as  a  whole; 
but  unfortunately  those  who  are  able  to  do  this  are  few  in  num- 
ber and  not  often  available.  If  these  three  aims  —  interest, 
instruction,  and  inspiration  —  are  always  realized  at  least  in 
part,  the  assembling  of  the  school  will  be  looked  forward  to 
with  pleasure,  and  the  school  life  will  be  enriched  to  the  degree 
that  these  aims  are  realized. 

To  make  certain  that  the  general  exercise  period  is  pleasing, 
instructive,  and  inspiring,  there  are  a  few  things  that  must  be 
avoided.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  by  those  responsible 
that  it  is  not  a  time  to  say  unpleasant  things.  This  means 
that  we  must  not  yield  to  the  temptation  to  discuss  frequently 


3IO  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

matters  of  discipline  or  to  point  out  the  faults  and  shortcom- 
ings of  the  pupils.     For  this  view  there  are  at  least  two  reasons: 
(i)  It  will  seldom  accomplish  the  thing  aimed  at,  since  bad 
conduct  is  too  personal  a  matter  to  be  treated  successfully  in 
mass  or  in  public;  and  (2)  talk  concerning  pupils'  shortcomings 
is  not  pleasing,  instructive,  or  inspiring,  as  it  violates  a  funda- 
mental principle  of  pedagogy  in  that  it  emphasizes  the  wrong 
thing.    Usually  the  one  who  yields  to  the  temptation  to  say 
ill-natured  and  unpleasant  things  in  public  is  fully  persuaded 
that  he  is  doing  so  for  the  good  of  his  hearers;  he  believes  he 
is  "  telling  them  the  truth  and  saying  things  that  they  ought  to 
know;"    whereas  a  more  complete  analysis  of  the  case  would 
show  that  he  is  merely  relieving  his  own  feelings  on  a  matter 
that  is  disturbing  his  peace  of  mind.     At  best  this  unpleasant 
practice  is  an  imposition  upon  a  great  majority  of  the  pupils, 
that  part  of  the  school,  too,  that  is  entitled  to  the  most  defer- 
ence;   for  the  adverse  criticism  to  which  expression  is  given 
usually  applies  to  a  comparatively  small  number,  unless  some 
one  besides  the  pupils  is  at  fault  or  inefficient.    Again,  unless 
care  is  exercised  to  exclude  fault-finding  and  seeming  irritabil- 
ity, there  is  danger  of  the  pupils'  coming  to  feel  that  school  is 
not  a  pleasant  place  to  be;    because  what  is  done  in  public 
and  by  those  in  authority  naturally  does  much  to  determine 
the  tone  of  the  entire  institution,  whatever  the  institution  may 
be.    Further,  frequent  reprimanding,  like  any  other  form  of 
irritation,  tends  to  produce  a  calloused  condition  and  thus  to 
defeat  its  own  ends  because  of  the  resulting  lack  of  sensitive- 
ness. 

In  our  efforts  to  make  the  general  exercise  period  instructive, 
there  is  danger  of  adding  another  working  period  to  the  school 
day;  this  is  another  thing  to  be  avoided.  But,  if  the  programs 
really  make  a  strong  appeal  to  the  interests  and  needs  of  the 
pupils,  they  will  not  be  felt  burdensome.  The  more  substantial 
and  thought-provoking  the  subject  presented,  the  more  skill 


ASSEMBLY  31I 

will  be  needed  in  treating  it.  Heavy  subjects  will  not  be  bur- 
densome when  treated  concretely  and  made  to  touch  the  lives 
of  the  pupils. 

In  every  community  there  are  people  who  will  wish  to  ex- 
ploit the  high-school  pupils;  the  motive  may  be  either  selfish- 
ness or  merely  devotion  to  some  pet  scheme  or  hobby  on  the 
part  of  the  one  who  seeks  a  hearing.  This  again  is  something 
to  be  guarded  against  if  the  pupils  are  not  to  be  imposed  upon. 
Requests  for  an  opportunity  to  address  the  school  are  usually 
made  in  such  a  manner  and  by  such  persons  that  it  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  refuse.  Yet  in  the  interest  of  the  pupils,  which  is 
the  only  interest  to  be  considered  in  this  case,  whatever  is 
undertaken  during  the  assembly  period  must  meet  one  or 
more  of  the  aims  mentioned  above. 

The  reader  will  readily  agree  that  the  programs  ought  to  be 
interesting,  instructive,  or  inspiring  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
pupils;  yet  in  many  schools  the  simplest  and  most  direct  method 
of  realizing  these  aims  is  not  employed.  Very  often  the  assump- 
tion seems  to  be  that  the  assembly  period  belongs  solely  to 
the  principal,  and  that  he  alone  knows  what  is  needed;  or, 
when  there  is  a  little  less  prevalence  of  the  monarchial  idea  of 
managing  matters,  a  committee  of  teachers  has  charge  of  the 
programs.  In  either  case  the  assumption  is  that  some  one  be- 
sides the  pupils  knows  better  than  the  pupils  what  will  meet 
their  interests  and  needs.  It  must  be  clear  that  all  of  the  fore- 
going discussion  tends  to  but  one  conclusion;  and  that  is,  that 
the  general  exercises  of  the  school  should  be  a  social  affair. 
In  other  words,  some  way  should  be  found  to  capitalize  all 
the  best  ideas  of  the  pupils  and  the  teachers  and  make  use 
of  all  the  available  talent  of  both  the  school  and  the  com- 
munity. 

As  to  how  this  will  be  brought  about  will  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  school  and  many  other  conditions;  a  great  variety 
of  plans  have  been  used  to  secure  the  desired  results;  but  in 


312  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

all  schemes  the  principle  of  cooperation  is  fundamental,  the 
cooperation  of  all  departments  and  all  elements  of  the  school. 
This  is  the  only  way  to  make  sure  that  the  interests  and  needs 
of  the  pupils  are  all  known  and  met;  and  it  is  necessary  to  the 
development  of  a  "social  conscience''  and  to  making  certain 
that  the  individuals  "participate  in  the  social  conscience." 
In  the  published  accounts  of  cooperative  schemes,  the  best 
practice  seems  to  place  the  responsibility  for  the  assembly 
programs  in  the  hands  of  a  committee  composed  of  pupils  and 
at  least  one  member  of  the  faculty.  Sometimes  the  committee 
is  permanent,  and  in  some  cases  the  committee  in  charge  is  a 
changing  body.  The  most  important  considerations  to  bear 
in  mind  are  that  the  pupil  members  of  the  committee  must 
be  pupils  that  know  pretty  definitely  what  the  school  really 
wants  and  that  nothing  interests  and  pleases  a  school  so  much 
as  performances  by  its  own  members.  The  literature  of  the 
subject  contains  reports  of  marked  success  where  the  work  is 
in  the  hands  of  some  sort  of  a  representative  committee,  and 
this  seems  to  be  the  best  way  to  manage.  However,  the  author 
has  been  able  to  realize  the  aims  and  accomplish  some  of  the 
purposes  of  the  school  assembly  by  what  appears  a  less  system- 
atic way  of  managing.  He  has  found  it  convenient  and  sat- 
isfactory to  invite  the  various  organizations  and  classes  each  to 
assume  the  responsibiUty  of  preparing  and  carrying  out  a  pro- 
gram. This  sort  of  a  plan  may  easily  include  special  programs 
for  special  days,  such  as,  national  holidays  and  anniversaries  of 
great  events.  The  scheme  here  suggested  usually  gives  rise 
to  wholesome  emulation  on  the  part  of  those  who  do  the  work. 
Either  this  or  the  committee  plan  is  likely  to  secure  the  ser- 
vices of  all  the  special  talent  of  the  school.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  say  that  this  cooperation  between  pupils  and  teachers 
does  not  abrogate  any  faculty  authority. 

The  following  arrangement  was  used  several  semesters  in 
one  school.     On  Mondays  the  principal  addressed  the  schod. 


ASSEMBLY  313 

and  attempted  to  interest  the  pupils  in  a  great  variety  of  topics, 
including  an  interpretation  of  events  and  people  of  current 
interest,  literature,  art,  travel,  and  topics  that  might  be  classed 
as  the  philosophy  of  living.  Tuesdays  some  one  outside  of 
the  school  was  invited  to  speak  to  the  pupils.  The  speakers 
were  men  and  women  from  every  walk  of  life,  and  they  dis- 
cussed a  great  variety  of  topics.  Wednesdays  one  of  the  older 
pupils  spoke  before  the  school  or  provided  a  program;  these 
mornings  nearly  always  brought  matters  of  much  interest  and 
were  anticipated  with  pleasure  by  the  school.  Thursdays  one 
of  the  teachers  either  addressed  the  school  or  arranged  a  pro- 
gram. The  Friday  programs  consisted  of  music  furnished 
either  by  outside  talent  or  by  the  school.  This  arrangement 
brings  about  the  greatest  possible  variety  in  the  programs  and 
makes  a  rather  satisfactory  distribution  of  responsibility. 

Probably  the  school  assembly  proves  of  greatest  educative 
value  when  there  is  a  real  issue  and  something  to  be  done  for 
which  sentiment  must  be  created;  in  this  case  results  are  ob- 
tained by  focusing  attention  on  what  is  needed  and  arousing 
interest  and  enthusiasm  for  the  undertaking.  This  can  be  so 
managed  as  to  give  the  pupils  the  very  best  training  in  initia- 
tive and  real  experience  in  public  speaking.  No  critic  of  high- 
school  debating  is  able  to  find  anything  artificial  or  stilted  in 
the  discussions  which  naturally  accompany  the  consideration  of 
any  enterprise  undertaken  by  the  pupils,  especially  if  the  en- 
terprise is  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  school  or  the  community. 
Any  school  that  did  not  make  use  of  the  assembly  period  for 
the  purpose  of  initiating  and  promoting  the  many  worthy 
causes  and  the  various  "drives"  during  the  great  war  certainly 
failed  to  realize  its  resources  to  the  full,  and  neglected  a  splen- 
did opportunity  for  training  in  cooperative  effort.  The  ex- 
periences that  our  country  was  passing  through  were  always 
rich  in  worthy  and  appealing  motives;  the  high-school  boys 
and  girls  were  always  pleased  to  plan  and  execute  any  piece  of 


314  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

war  service  that  was  suggested  to  them;  and  after  they  caught 
the  notion  that  they  could  really  have  a  part  in  the  great  world 
events,  they  were  fertile  in  ideas  and  effective  in  execution. 
In  the  present  writer's  experience  one  carefully  planned  pro- 
gram was  usually  sufficient  to  initiate  a  successful  campaign 
of  war  service.  It  was  easy  to  develop  a  wonderfully  interest- 
ing and  effective  interplay  of  responsibility  between  the  pupils 
and  the  faculty;  by  means  of  real  teamwork  strong  programs 
were  planned,  and  the  programs  stimulated  voluntary  effort 
and  cooperation  to  a  degree  that  nothing  else  would.  The 
war  has  passed;  but  there  are  always  worthy  and  real  motives 
at  hand.  Both  faculty  and  pupils  should  continually  have 
under  consideration  many  more  school  enterprises  than  can 
actually  be  carried  out.  The  assembly  period  is  the  natural 
time  to  learn  of  any  of  these  enterprises  that  demand  con- 
certed action. 

The  following  activities  are  illustrative  of  what  one  high 
school  xmdertook  at  assembly  during  the  past  year:  a  discus- 
sion by  the  pupils  of  the  advisability  of  resuming  athletic  rela- 
tions with  a  neighboring  high  school  with  which  these  relations 
had  been  severed,  presentation  and  acceptance  by  the  pupils  of 
memorials  and  gifts  to  the  school,  arousing  enthusiasm  for  com- 
ing athletic  and  literary  contests  with  other  schools,  honoring 
successful  athletes  and  debaters,  presentation  of  the  school's  ath- 
letic and  Hterary  "letters"  at  the  end  of  each  season,  the  or- 
ganizing and  carrying  out  of  a  mock  political  convention,  ad- 
vertising class  plays  by  the  members  of  the  cast,  launching  a 
thrift  movement,  practicing  school  songs  and  school  yells,  pur- 
chasing a  United  States  flag  for  the  school,  discussion  of  the 
advisability  of  new  organizations,  and  the  discussion  of  many 
other  matters  of  general  interest  to  the  school. 

Besides  these  specific  things  that  are  given  an  assembly 
period  for  their  consideration,  there  is  usually  considerable 
business  connected  with  the  management  of  the  school  that 


ASSEMBLY  315 

must  have  prompt  attention,  and  the  assembly  serves  as  a  sort 
of  a  clearing  house  for  the  transaction  of  this  business. 

The  school  assembly  is  the  natural  place  to  teach  the  pupils 
proper  conduct  at  public  gatherings,  something  that  is  greatly 
needed  in  many  communities.  There  is  a  rather  definite  "so- 
cial criterion  of  conduct,"  which  they  must  learn  and  habit- 
ually observe  if  they  are  to  be  socially  efficient.  If  pupils  leave 
high  school  without  the  ideals  of  social  behavior  pretty  well 
crystallized,  their  conduct  on  public  occasions  is  likely  to  be 
such  as  to  cause  them  to  be  misjudged,  by  unconsciously  sub- 
jecting themselves  to  criticism. 

The  practice  with  regard  to  the  time  for  holding  general  exer- 
cises seems  to  vary  greatly.  If  the  time  of  beginning  school 
work  in  the  morning  and  other  conditions  are  favorable, 
there  would  appear  to  be  many  reasons  for  opening  school  with 
an  assembly.  In  many  places  where  this  is  not  practicable, 
it  is  the  custom  to  assemble  the  school  about  the  middle  of  the 
forenoon;  and  there  are  a  number  of  schools  that  begin  the 
afternoon  session  with  general  exercises.  But  the  matter  of 
time  is  not  as  important  as  the  other  considerations.  It  is 
of  consequence,  however,  that  every  one  connected  with  the 
school  should  attend,  and  good  form  demands  promptness 
on  the  part  of  all.  The  length  of  the  regular  assembly  period 
seems  to  vary  from  ten  to  thirty  minutes.  If  the  school  meets 
every  day  or  three  times  per  week,  half  an  hour  is  too  long, 
whereas  ten  minutes  is  not  sufficient  to  accompUsh  many  things 
that  ought  to  be  undertaken. 

This  chapter  has  attempted  the  following:  to  emphasize 
the  importance  of  developing  esprit  de  corps  in  high  schools 
and  to  show  that  the  school  assembly  may  serve  as  a  unifying 
influence;  to  make  clear  the  necessity  of  interesting,  instructive, 
and  inspiring  programs  in  order  to  secure  the  desired  results; 
to  point  out  a  few  things  that  should  be  avoided  if  we  are  to 
realize  the  three  qualities  named  above;  to  enforce  the  idea  that 


3l6  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  assembly  period,  like  neariy  every  school  activity,  belongs 
to  the  pupils,  and  that  their  cooperation  is  positively  necessary; 
and  to  give  a  few  concrete  illustrations  of  what  schools  have 
accomplished. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SEX   EDUCATION 

The  subject  discussed  in  this  chapter  is  both  difficult  and 
delicate, —  difficult  because  it  deals  with  matters  concerning 
which  there  is  at  present  considerable  difference  of  opinion, 
and  delicate  because  the  propagation  of  wrong  ideas  in  this 
field  involves  consequences  momentous  in  their  bearing  on 
both  individual  and  social  life.  In  fact  the  whole  movement 
of  sex  education  has  been  seriously  questioned.  But  a  book 
dealing  with  problems  of  social  administration  in  secondary- 
education  that  makes  adolescence  its  point  of  departure  and 
attempts  to  solve  these  problems  in  the  light  of  our  latest  knowl- 
edge concerning  the  psychology  of  youth  cannot  logically  omit 
a  consideration  of  the  functions  and  hygiene  of  sex;  for,  as 
has  been  shown,  the  appearance  and  development  of  these 
functions  are  the  central  and  causal  factors  in  all  that  occurs 
during  the  period  of  adolescence;  they  are  the  basis  of  the  mar- 
velous mental  and  social  development  which  is  due  at  this  time. 
Either  perversion  or  arrest  of  the  sex  instincts  leads  to  disastrous 
results,  the  extent  of  the  disaster  depending  upon  the  degree 
of  perversion  or  arrest.  The  plane  of  the  individual  life  as 
a  whole  cannot  be  above  the  plane  of  the  sex  life. 

The  purpose  of  the  following  discussions  is  to  establish  a 
wholesome  viewpoint  and  make  suggestions  concerning  matter 
and  methods  of  instruction.  These  discussions  should  be  of 
interest  to  high-school  teachers,  athletic  directors,  and  parents. 
This  chapter  does  not  undertake  to  furnish  knowledge  concern- 
ing sexual  subjects;  this  is  readily  obtained  from  the  many 
reliable  books  and  pamphlets  that  have  appeared  recently. 

317 


3i8  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

Both  scientists  and  physicians  of  authority  have  done  good 
work  in  presenting  the  needed  information  in  a  simple  and  scien- 
tific way.  It  is  hoped,  too,  that  the  present  treatment  of 
the  subject  will  make  clear  its  importance  and  suggest  a  duty 
to  those  responsible  for  the  welfare  of  adolescents. 

Notwithstanding  the  strong  convictions  which  many  social 
workers  of  international  fame  and  other  well-informed  and 
thoughtful  people  now  have  in  favor  of  a  vigorous  campaign 
of  sex  instruction,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are 
grave  dangers  involved  in  teaching  young  people  all  the  facts 
they  need  to  guide  them  safely  through  the  strong  and  choppy 
currents  of  adolescence.  The  following  are  some  of  the  possible 
causes  of  danger:  the  immature  age  of  the  boys  and  girls  at  the 
time  the  instruction  must  begin  in  order  to  forestall  with  cer- 
tainty serious  mistakes  on  their  part;  previous  false  notions 
concerning  sex  and  wrong  attitudes  toward  the  subject,  due 
to  the  vulgar  sources  of  information;  the  arousing  of  a  morbid 
curiosity  with  regard  to  perfectly  normal  matters;  thinking 
about  personal  conditions  and  functions  which  ought  to  be 
kept  out  of  the  mind  as  much  as  possible;  forcing  attention 
upon  abnormal  and  repulsive  acts,  habits,  and  conditions;  and 
the  unfortunate  reaction  of  parents  and  the  community,  due 
to  false  ideas  concerning  the  whole  subject. 

It  is  believed  that  the  dangers  due  to  immaturity  can  be 
guarded  against  by  carefully  selecting  only  the  facts  that  are 
needed  in  early  adolescence  and  by  a  skilful  and  sympathetic 
presentation;  this  is  the  testimony  of  many  that  have  had  ex- 
perience. The  difficulty  arising  from  previous  false  ideas  and 
standards  can  be  overcome  by  a  serious  and  scientific  handling 
of  the  subject  by  a  mature  and  highly  respected  person.  Mor- 
bid curiosity  and  brooding  over  matters  of  sex  often  result 
from  partial  or  inaccurate  information;  it  is  often  a  case  where 
the  truth  makes  the  recipient  whole.  In  one  respect  the  nat- 
ural functioning  of  the  sex  organs  and  instincts  is  like  digestion; 


SEX  EDUCATION  319 

in  order  to  be  most  natural  and  healthful  little  attention  must 
be  given  it.  In  both  cases  the  skilful  teacher  gives  the  essen- 
tial facts  in  a  frank  full  way,  then  dismisses  them  from  thought 
as  completely  as  possible.  The  abnormal  and  repulsive  as- 
pects of  the  subjects  which  must  be  included  should  be  kept  in 
the  background  by  placing  the  emphasis  on  the  normal  and 
health-giving  phases  of  the  subject.  It  has  been  found  that 
the  attitude  of  parents  and  the  community  toward  sex  instruc- 
tion is  determined  largely  by  the  way  the  children  feel  about 
it  and  the  actual  results  obtained ;  that  is,  if  the  work  is  success- 
ful judged  from  the  standpoint  of  the  pupils,  no  serious  criti- 
cism need  be  feared.  Although  the  present  writer  believes  in 
the  urgent  need  of  sex  education  and  seems  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful in  directing  it,  he  does  not  wish  to  be  responsible  for 
any  reader  undertaking  the  work;  much  depends  upon  condi- 
tions, and  the  knowledge,  skill,  and  personality  of  the  teacher. 
As  in  the  case  of  introducing  social  dancing,  the  one  under- 
taking it  should  be  moved  by  a  strong  conviction  and  assume 
full  responsibility.  However,  it  is  hoped  that  the  approach 
to  the  subject  here  recommended  and  the  suggestions  concern- 
ing methods  and  the  timing  of  the  various  phases  of  the  sub- 
ject will  aid  in  making  the  undertaking  not  only  helpful  but 
safe  for  all  concerned. 

The  dangers  and  difficulties  incident  to  sex  instruction  are 
not  likely  to  appear  if  the  emphasis  is  continually  placed  on 
the  natural,  positive,  health-producing,  soul-inspiring  life- 
processes  involved  in  the  maturing  of  sex;  that  is,  fixing  and 
maintaining  the  proper  viewpoint  will  do  much  toward  in- 
suring success;  for  nearly  all  the  troubles  and  dangers  incident 
to  sex  development  are  due  to  false  perspectives.  The  adoles- 
cent must  understand  and  feel  the  marvelous  new  powers  and 
the  richness  of  personality  that  are  now  his  inheritance  if  na- 
ture is  allowed  to  do  its  work;  as  Hall  says,  nature  now  "plays 
upon  the  soul  with  its  rich  orchestra  of  influ^ices."    The 


320  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

one  who  attempts  to  instruct  high-school  pupils  in  matters  per- 
taining to  sex,  if  the  instruction  is  to  be  helpful  and  avoid  the 
dangers  referred  to,  must  keep  constantly  before  him  the  ideal 
of  wholesome  and  vigorous  living  and  growing.  The  youth 
must  be  filled  with  enthusiasm  for  a  clean,  vigorous  body. 
He  must  in  some  way  be  impressed  with  the  scientific  truth 
that  the  dawning  of  the  sex  instincts  and  impulses,  which 
are  the  most  powerful  of  all,  makes  possible  the  upbuilding  of 
all  the  beautiful  traits  of  character  that  we  call  manly  and 
womanly,  that  the  role  of  sex  is  normal,  fundamental,  stim- 
ulating, and  uplifting,  hence  the  most  important  natural 
influence  for  power  and  good  that  ever  comes  to  the  individual.  ♦ 

To  make  sure  that  all  the  beneficent  physical,  mental,  and 
social  influences  which  belong  to  this  period  are  operative, 
there  are  a  few  scientific  facts  that  must  in  due  time  be  impressed 
upon  both  boys  and  girls.  Most  important  on  the  side  of  phys- 
ical influences  is  the  stimulating  and  constructive  influence 
of  the  internal  secretions  of  the  more  important  sex  glands, 
which  cannot  be  perverted  without  disturbing  and  unfavorable 
results;  on  the  side  of  mental  influence  is  the  health-giving  and 
energy-producing  effect  of  pure  thinking.  From  these  two 
benign  causes  there  come  to  the  adolescent  the  vigor,  the  charm, 
the  spirit,  and  the  beauty  that  are  peculiar  to  this  period  of 
human  development;  to  miss  these  is  to  miss  youth  with 
its  imique  joys  and  aspirations.  The  "voices  and  visions" 
and  "celestial  messengers"  of  which  the  poets  of  youth  tell 
us  come  most  surely  to  those  who  keep  sacred  the  laws  of  nature. 
This  viewpoint  of  the  subject  and  this  way  of  emphasizing  the 
instruction  should  do  much  toward  anticipating  and  prevent- 
ing the  difficulties  and  dangers  incident  to  dealing  with  this 
delicate  subject. 

Very  important,  also,  to  the  success  of  the  instruction  in 
matters  of  sex  is  the  method  of  approach;  it  is  vital  that  the 
subject,  as  well  as  all  the  important  facts  involved,  should  be 


SEX  EDUCATION  321 

given  its  true  scientific  setting.  This  will  add  force  to  the  in- 
struction and  aid  in  removing  any  self-consciousness  or  morbid 
curiosity  that  might  lurk  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The 
scientific  approach  and  setting  for  all  constructive  sex  educa- 
tion are  naturally  supplied  by  the  biological  sciences.  The 
most  successful  instruction  with  which  the  author  has  had  ex- 
perience began  by  making  clear  the  logical  place  of  reproduc- 
tion among  the  other  life-processes;  the  natural  order  seems  to 
be,  digestion,  circulation,  assimilation,  excretion,  respiration, 
reproduction,  and  sensation.  Thus  a  complete  course  in  bi- 
ology logically  includes  a  study  of  reproduction,  which  is  the 
ultimate  consideration  in  sex  education.  Much  of  the  instruc- 
tion preparatory  to  sexual  knowledge  had  better  be  incidental. 
The  approach  is  easily  made  by  means  of  a  review  of  the  essen- 
tial organs  and  functions  in  plant  reproduction;  this  supplies 
a  simple  scientific  vocabulary,  and  it  is  very  important  that 
the  terms  of  this  vocabulary  should  always  be  used  instead  of 
the  vulgar  terms  with  which  the  pupils,  especially  the  boys, 
are  pretty  sure  to  be  familiar.  The  next  step  is  a  study  of  the 
various  forms  of  reproduction  in  the  lower  forms  of  animal 
life;  then  the  reproductive  function  in  higher  forms,  ending 
with  mammals,  includes  practically  all  the  essential  facts  re- 
quired as  a  basis  of  a  sound  and  scientific  study  of  the  human 
development  of  sex.  This  gradual  approach  and  the  supply- 
ing of  this  scientific  background  robs  the  subject  of  its  mystery 
and  gives  it  a  wholesome  place  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  beside 
the  other  interesting  facts  concerning  the  processes  of  life; 
the  aim  is  to  give  the  pupil's  ideas  concerning  sex  their  true 
biological  place. 

The  above  aims  and  ideals  will  be  realized  with  more  cer- 
tainty if  the  various  phases  of  the  subject  are  properly  timed. 
There  are  many  of  the  simple  facts  concerning  the  origin  of 
beings  and  the  difference  between  the  sexes  that  the  child  should 
get  in  the  home  long  before  preadolescence;  and  there  is  another 


322  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

important  body  of  information  that  should  be  imparted  on  the 
threshold  of  puberty.  Although  there  are  usually  no  signifi- 
cant conscious  sex  impulses  before  the  time  of  puberty,  there 
is  naturally  much  active  interest  in  the  matter  of  sex;  so  the 
whole  problem  is  to  direct  this  spontaneous  interest  into  whole- 
some channels.  In  general  it  is  highly  advantageous  that 
the  essential  facts  and  considerations  respecting  sex  be  instilled 
into  the  youthful  mind  before  they  have  taken  on  the  emotional 
garb;  this  will  aid  greatly  in  keeping  the  attitude  of  the  learner 
strictly  scientific.  Since  all  emotions  have  an  instinctive  basis, 
this  means  that  much  instruction  must  be  given  before  the 
appearance  of  the  powerful  instincts;  this  is  not  only  in  the 
interest  of  a  scientific,  matter-of-fact  reception  of  the  instruc- 
tion, but  is  necessary  to  the  safety  of  the  individual  pupils. 
As  some  one  has  said,  "better  a  year  too  early  than  an  hour 
too  late"  in  these  vital  matters. 

Suggestions  with  regard  to  the  age  best  suited  to  the  various 
phases  of  sex  instruction  imply  an  accurate  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  the  instructor,  whether  parent  or  teacher,  respect- 
ing the  on-coming  of  the  various  stages  in  adolescent  develop- 
ment. The  problem  is  considerably  complicated,  so  far  as 
group  teaching  is  concerned,  by  reason  of  the  great  variability 
in  the  time  of  maturing,  as  noted  in  our  study  of  adolescence, 
due  to  individual  differences,  health,  race,  and  social  status. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  studies  made  thus  far  on  the  age 
of  sex  maturity  indicate  that  the  largest  number  of  boys 
mature  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  fourteen  and  a 
half,  and  girls  between  twelve  and  thirteen.  But  for  prac- 
tical purposes  it  is  more  important  to  note  that  the  maturing 
period  for  American  boys  varies  from  eleven  and  a  half  to  six- 
teen and  a  half,  and  American  girls  from  ten  and  a  half  to 
fifteen  and  a  half  (King) ;  this  may  be  thought  of  as  a  sort  of 
normal  variation,  extreme  cases  of  early  and  late  maturing 
occurring  occasionally  outside  of  the  periods  here  given. 


SEX  EDUCATION  323 

The  following  suggestions  relative  to  the  age  best  suited  to 
introduce  boys  and  girls  to  the  various  phases  of  sex  education 
are  given  with  much  hesitancy;  for  there  is  not  yet  accumulated 
a  sufficient  body  of  experience  to  warrant  any  dogmatic  state- 
ments, and  the  experts  who  have  attacked  this  aspect  of  the 
problem  are  not  fully  agreed. 

Taking  all  available  data  into  consideration,  it  would  seem 
that  during  the  period  of  preadolescence,  when  the  barbaric 
characteristics  of  the  human  race  are  most  manifest,  when  the 
average  boy  especially  exhibits  more  proclivities  toward  vul- 
garity than  at  any  other  time,  there  should  be  a  rather  limited 
amount  of  direct  teaching;  however,  there  may  well  be  much 
indirect  instruction  connected  with  nature  study,  plant  breed- 
ing, and  health.  The  minds  of  boys  and  girls  at  this  age  should 
be  free  from  the  subject  of  sex  as  much  of  the  time  as  possible; 
this  can  be  brought  about  more  surely  if  their  natural  curios- 
ity concerning  a  few  matters  has  been  satisfied;  and  this  is 
their  natural  right,  and  lays  a  proper  foundation  for  their  com- 
plete sex  education. 

We  may  be  sure  that  the  preadolescent,  especially  the  boy, 
will  get  the  desired  information  and  explanations  somehow; 
and,  because  of  the  sources,  the  information  he  gets  is  nearly 
always  false  and  usually  colored  in  most  unwholesome  ways. 
To  the  question  as  to  who  gave  them  their  first  information 
concerning  the  subject  of  sex,  Dr.  M.  J.  Exner  received  an- 
swers from  676  college  men;  he  classified  617  of  the  sources 
as  bad  57  as  good.  Among  the  former  were  boy  associates 
544,  girl  associates  33,  hired  men  22,  stories  and  talk  9;  among 
the  good  sources  were  parents  and  relatives  27,  brothers  14, 
teachers  3,  and  lecturers  3.  Of  these  676  college  men  "91.5 
per  cent  received  their  first  permanent  impressions  about  sex 
from  unwholesome  sources."  Certainly  there  will  be  much 
less  liability  to  harmful  results  when  the  preadolescent  is  given 
the  information  which  his  curiosity  craves  in  a  natural,  frank, 


324  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

open  manner  by  some  one  that  he  respects  and  trusts.  This 
information  will  tend  to  dispel  the  mystery  which  so  often  sur- 
rounds the  subject  and  thus  aid  in  keeping  the  mind  free  from 
thoughts  concerning  it.  Dr.  Exner  says  that  it  is  only  by 
reading  the  answers  to  his  questionnaires  that  one  can  get  the 
tremendous  force  of  the  figures  which  he  has  compiled;  he 
is  certain  that  "these  sources  of  early  sex  information  have 
distorted  the  whole  question,  poisoned  the  mind  and  imagina- 
tion, sensualized  the  whole  atmosphere  of  the  life,  led  to  destruc- 
tive sex  habits,  and  caused  untold  mental  misery." 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  natural  teacher  at  this  time 
for  the  boy  is  his  father,  and  for  the  girl,  her  mother.  But 
both  observation  and  the  studies  that  have  been  made  similar 
to  those  of  Dr.  Exner  indicate  that  a  very  small  per  cent  of 
children  get  their  information  concerning  sex  from  their  parents. 
According  to  a  statement  based  on  the  answers  to  Dr.  Exner's 
questions  and  issued  by  the  United  States  Public  Health  Ser- 
vice, only  four  per  cent  of  677  college  men  secured  their  first 
information  relative  to  matters  of  sex  from  their  parents.  Other 
studies  show  that  boys  are  more  successful  than  girls  in  getting 
information  of  some  kind  concerning  these  matters;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  found  that  mothers  are  generally 
more  thoughtful  for  the  welfare  of  their  daughters  than  fathers 
for  the  safety  of  their  sons. 

An  easy-going  ignorance  or  carelessness  concerning  results, 
or  a  lack  of  courage  accounts  for  the  shameful  shortcomings 
of  parents;  hence  in  most  cases  the  only  safe  source  of  informa- 
tion at  present  for  a  great  majority  of  American  children  is 
some  skilful,  conscientious  teacher  in  the  public  school.  It  is 
hoped  that  this  is  only  a  transition  period,  and  that  soon  parents 
will  be  sufl&ciently  informed  and  willing  to  imdertake  this  impor- 
tant work  with  their  children.  Of  one  thing  we  may  be  certain: 
the  preadolescent  will  know.  The  only  question  is,  who  shall 
inform  him?    It  is  much  more  important  who  shall  teach  him 


SEX  EDUCATION  325 

than  how  much  he  shall  be  taught,  the  topic  now  to  be  discussed. 
At  the  end  of  the  period  under  consideration,  that  is,  on  the 
threshold  of  adolescence,  some  one  with  adequate  knowledge, 
skill,  and  conviction  should  come  forward  and  furnish  informa- 
tion on  at  least  the  following  subjects. 

First  and  most  fundamental,  both  boys  and  girls  should  be 
informed  respecting  the  new  hfe  upon  which  they  are  to  enter; 
and  especially  should  they  be  made  to  realize  the  great  possi- 
bilities for  personal  development  in  all  things  that  make  for 
health,  mental  vigor,  and  the  richer  and  finer  elements  of  char- 
acter. They  must  be  made  to  understand  that  all  of  the  more 
distinctly  human  and  desirable  powers  and  traits  will  now  come 
to  them  in  a  perfectly  natural  way,  providing  the  laws  of  their 
development  are  not  perverted  or  in  any  way  interfered  with. 
This  instruction  should  include  scientific  information  with 
regard  to  the  value  and  significance  of  sex  in  later  life,  some  of 
the  simpler  and  more  fundamental  facts  concerning  reproduc- 
tion, and  the  relation  between  these  and  proper  living.  If 
it  can  be  done  tactfully,  there  should  be  intimations  relative 
to  the  new  thoughts  and  feelings  characteristic  of  the  period 
and  the  dangers  incident  thereto;  because  the  instincts  and  im- 
pulses are  so  powerful,  they  are  not  only  all  important  but 
also  dangerous.  Adolescents  should  be  made  to  appreciate 
that  self-control  is  at  all  times  one  of  the  most  valuable  assets 
in  life  and  that  it  is  now  vitally  connected  with  the  fullest  de- 
velopment of  all  the  desirable  manly  and  womanly  qualities. 

It  is  believed  by  those  who  have  given  much  thought  to  sex 
education,  that,  on  the  physical  side,  a  pretty  definite  knowl- 
edge concerning  internal  secretions  (scientifically  called  hor- 
mones) and  their  functions  is  needed  to  furnish  a  scientific  basis 
for  much  practical  instruction;  the  thinking  on  the  part  of 
adolescents  that  is  likely  to  result  from  this  knowledge  cannot 
be  other  than  wholesome,  because  of  the  appeal  that  it  makes 
to  their  natural  desire  for  personal  efficiency  and  charm.    The 


326  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

instruction  concerping  the  internal  secretions  of  the  sex  glands 
should  always  follow  the  study  of  secretion  in  general.  For 
the  present  purpose  it  seems  best  to  classify  secretions  as 
external  (saliva,  perspiration,  gastric  juice),  internal  (from  the 
thyroid  glands  and  the  adrenal  bodies),  and  both  external  and 
internal  (from  the  liver,  pancreas,  testicles,  and  ovaries). 
When  pupils  reaUze  the  marvelously  powerful  and  subtile  in- 
fluence of  many  of  the  internal  secretions  of  the  body,  they 
are  prepared  to  understand  and  properly  evaluate  the  subtile 
and  potent  influence  of  the  internal  secretions  of  the  sex  glands, 
for  this  knowledge  follows  as  a  natural  corollary  of  the  whole 
subject  of  internal  secretions  in  general.  The  teaching  of  this 
subject  can  easily  be  reinforced  on  the  practical  side  by  analogies 
drawn  from  some  of  the  animals  with  which  the  pupils  are 
famihar.  It  must  be  definitely  understood  that  the  great  wealth 
of  vigor,  endurance,  charm,  and  the  finer  spiritual  quahties 
which  are  due  at  this  time  is  strictly  conditioned  upon  the  full 
and  natural  internal  functioning  of  these  glands,  whose  matur- 
ing is  the  central  fact  of  all  the  changes  that  we  include  under 
the  comprehensive  term  adolescence.  It  must  be  brought 
home  to  the  boy  in  some  effective  manner  that  his  hard  mus- 
cles, which  defy  the  blow  of  his  opponent  in  boxing,  his  fiery 
eye,  which  signifies  spirit  and  inspires  confidence,  his  undaunted 
courage,  which  shines  forth  on  the  athletic  field  and  always 
makes  a  real  force  to  be  reckoned  with,  and  all  the  virile  qual- 
ities, which  belong  to  man's  estate  are  definitely  and  surely 
conditioned  by  the  proper  functioning  of  the  sex  glands;  the 
girl  must  be  made  to  realize  that  her  new  beauty  of  contour, 
her  increased  charms,  her  vivacity,  hei  subtile  power  over 
those  of  the  other  sex,  her  abounding  resourcefulness,  and 
her  splendid  womanly  traits,  are  all  the  direct  and  natural 
result  of  the  sudden  and  vigorous  awakening  of  these  important 
glands;  and  to  make  sure  of  these  beneficent  effects,  both  must 
understand  that  the  blood  cannot  in  any  way  be  deprived  of 


SEX  EDUCATION  32^ 

the  secretions.  This  knowledge  is  necessary  to  make  clear 
the  constructive  possibilities  of  adolescence  and  to  furnish  a 
scientific  basis  for  a  safe  physical  and  mental  regimen;  the 
definite  warnings  that  should  now  be  sounded  get  their  mean- 
ing and  force  from  a  clear  understanding  of  the  functions  of 
the  internal  secretions. 

There  are  a  few  other  facts  connected  with  the  development 
of  a  normal  boy  at  this  time  that  he  should  know,  otherwise 
he  does  not  get  "a  square  deal."  If  he  is  to  be  guarded  against 
unnecessary  worry,  and  possibly  against  contemptible  quacks 
who  are  scheming  to  profit  by  his  ignorance,  he  must  be 
given  clear  and  carefully  conveyed  information  concerning 
nocturnal,  diurnal,  and  involuntary  emissions;  and  he  should 
know  the  relation  of  diet,  exercise,  and  habits  of  thought  to 
these  phenomena.  Several  writers  insist  that  boys  at  this  age 
should  be  definitely  warned  against  unscrupulous  doctors.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  about  the  wisdom  of  giving  every  boy  a  clear 
statement  with  regard  to  habits  that  he  is  in  danger  of  falling 
into  and  of  their  natural  consequences;  however,  much  care 
should  be  exercised  not  to  dwell  on  such  subjects  or  give  an 
exaggerated  account  of  the  consequences.  For  the  intelligent 
boy,  accurate  knowledge  with  respect  to  internal  secretions  is 
full  of  wholesome  suggestions  on  this  point,  furnishing  him 
with  scientific  reasons  for  proper  conduct.  The  sympathetic 
and  persuasive  teacher  can  greatly  aid  the  boy  in  his  struggles 
with  himself  by  impressing  upon  him  the  significant  and  sus- 
taining influence  of  purity  of  thought  and  ideals.  Repressed 
feehngs  and  impulses  are  not  necessarily  killed;  life  must  be 
filled  with  healthy  activities  and  ideals  in  order  to  be  safe  and 
strong  and  clean. 

Girls,  too,  at  this  time  are  entitled  to  careful  instruction  as 
to  their  developing  nature  aiid  needs.  This  should  of  course 
be  given  by  their  mothers;  however,  if  the  mothers  are  remiss 
in  this  important  matter,  then  the  duty  seems  to  fall  to  some 


328  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

kind  woman  teacher  whom  the  girls  respect  and  trust.  They 
should  in  all  fairness  have  previous  information  relative  to  the 
new  physical  phenomenon  that  comes  at  this  stage  in  their 
development  and  the  care  of  themselves  in  connection  thereto. 
Their  teacher  of  physiology  should  always  be  a  woman,  and 
she  should  give  them  sufficient  instruction  concerning  the 
anatomy  and  location  of  the  internal  sex  organs  to  make  clear 
the  relation  of  proper  dressing  and  exercise  to  the  welfare  of 
these  organs  and  their  health.  It  is  also  greatly  to  be  desired 
that  forceful  and  sympathetic  friends  will  join  mothers  in  help- 
ing the  girls  to  build  high  ideals  of  modesty  and  reserve;  this 
is  a  matter  of  personal  influence,  calUng  for  supreme  tact  and 
deep  interest  on  the  part  of  those  who  undertake  this  kindly 
mission. 

There  are  other  very  important  matters  concerning  which 
boys  should  early  get  correct  and  convincing  information,  un- 
pleasant as  these  topics  may  be  for  discussion.  At  about 
the  beginning  of  middle  adolescence,  normally  at  about  fif- 
teen, boys  should  be  taught  the  scientifically  established 
facts  relative  to  the  three  sexual  diseases  and  the  direful  indi- 
vidual and  social  consequences.  The  teaching  concerning  this 
matter,  although  conservative,  must  be  given  in  no  uncertain 
terms;  for,  if  young  men  do  not  direct  their  steps  during  the 
next  few  years  with  eyes  wide  open,  some  one  is  shamefully 
to  blame;  the  pathetic  and  horrible  consequences  of  wrong- 
doing are  so  far-reaching  and  involve  the  innocent  and  unsus- 
pecting to  such  an  extent  that  duty  in  this  matter  is  clear  and 
imperative.  It  is  well,  too,  that  the  false  notion  which  the 
youth  often  gets  concerning  *' sexual  necessity"  should  be 
forestalled  by  giving  him  the  findings  of  science.  Let  us  also 
hope  that  there  will  always  be  at  hand  some  one  with  courage 
and  influence  to  deal  a  death  blow,  on  fitting  occasions,  to 
the  ancient  and  unfair  idea  of  the  double  standard  of  morality. 

In  addition  to  what  is  suggested  above,  it  may  be  said  that 


SEX  EDUCATION  329 

many  scientists  and  social  reformers  are  fully  persuaded  that 
all  young  people  should  be  informed  touching  the  latest  knowl- 
edge available  on  the  subject  of  eugenics.  If  modem  eugenics 
is  to  be  taught,  the  teaching  will  be  more  effective  if  delayed 
until  the  beginning  of  late  adolescence;  this  delay  is  in  the 
interest  of  more  mature  handling  of  the  subject  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  supplying  information  when  it  is  likely  to  be  needed. 

A  sUght  insight  into  adolescent  nature  is  sufficient  to  make 
evident  that  mere  knowledge,  however  accurate  and  com- 
plete, relative  to  the  matters  under  consideration  in  this  chap- 
ter is  not  enough  to  insure  right  conduct.  Scientific  knowl- 
edge furnishes  only  the  foundation.  As  has  already  been  in- 
timated, there  must  be  the  sanest  kind  of  teaching  with  respect 
to  moral  standards,  a  toning  up  of  the  will,  and  an  appeal,  in 
the  case  of  boys,  to  their  chivalry  and  altruism.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind  at  this  point  that  "preaching"  will  not  be  effec- 
tive in  deaUng  with  the  adolescent;  he  must  be  skilfully  led 
into  wholesome  lines  of  thought,  and  he  must  be  encouraged 
to  give  full  play  to  his  good  impulses  rather  than  trust  to  check- 
ing the  bad  impulses.  The  principles  developed  in  the  next 
chapter  should  supplement  what  is  said  here. 

In  the  preceding  discussions  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught 
and  their  order  and  time  of  introduction,  the  emphasis  has  been 
continually  placed  on  the  positive  aspects  of  the  problem,  the 
only  exception  being  the  teaching  concerning  the  sexual  diseases. 
This  is  an  application  of  the  principle  which  the  author  believes 
is  fundamental  in  dealing  with  adolescents,  a  principle  im- 
posed by  the  very  nature  of  adolescence;  that  is,  that  all 
efforts  on  behalf  of  adolescents  must  be  positive  and  construc- 
tive rather  than  negative  and  critical.  It  assumes  that  at  this 
time  we  have  a  great  and  wonder-working  force  that  must 
have  scope  and  guidance  rather  than  suppression  and  restraint; 
and  that  sex  development  is  the  dynamics  of  adolescence.  Thus 
everything  must  be  done  to  give  the  evolution  of  sex  its  normal 


330  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

place  in  the  scheme  of  human  development.  It  must  be  under- 
stood that  the  sex  instincts  as  such  are  neither  good  nor  bad; 
all  depends  upon  the  way  they  are  made  to  function;  for  these 
instincts  reach  down  into  the  most  primitive  soil  of  human 
nature  and  they  flower  in  the  highest  human  quahties, 
true  idealism  appearing  only  with  the  unfolding  of  sex  into 
consciousness.  When  properly  understood,  sex  life  and  re- 
production takes  on  a  sacredness  peculiar  to  any  subject  of 
momentous  importance  to  the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of 
human  beings.  It  must  be  raised  from  all  its  vulgar  and  re- 
pulsive associations  to  its  normal  place  as  the  source  and  im* 
pelling  motive  of  nearly  all  the  social  virtues  as  well  as  the 
many  human  qualities  which  attract  and  charm. 

On  the  pedagogical  side,  sex  education  is  a  problem  of  method 
and  spirit.  The  silent  treatment  which  the  subject  has  re- 
ceived, together  with  the  perverted  notions  which  have  grown 
up  and  the  low  associations  which  have  surrounded  it,  has  made 
the  matter  of  method  and  mode  of  approach  of  very  great  im- 
portance, consequently  demanding  thoughtful  consideration 
and  skill  in  handling;  and  nearly  all  recent  writers  and  students 
of  the  subject  agree  with  Dr.  Winfield  S.  Hall  of  Northwestern 
University  that  "the  only  rational  cure  for  the  present  social 
conditions  is  to  be  found  in  education."  It  is  encouraging  to 
note  that  Dr.  Exner's  study,  before  referred  to,  leads  him  to 
believe  that  there  is  a  "rapidly  growing  interest  in  sex  educa- 
tion on  the  part  of  high-school  authorities  and  teachers." 
About  1 8  per  cent  of  the  761  college  students  giving  informa- 
tion as  to  the  source  of  their  sex  instruction  mention  their  high 
school.  Dr.  Exner  further  concludes  from  his  study  that  edu- 
cation is  "a  reconstructive,  redirecting  force  after  the  sex  in- 
stinct has  been  allowed  to  become  seriously  misdirected,  as 
well  as  serving  to  keep  this  instinct  in  normal  channels  from 
childhood  up." 

The  following  suggestions  with  regard  to  sex  instruction  are 


SEX  EDUCATION  33I 

based  on  the  experience  of  the  author  and  many  others,  and 
they  seem  to  be  in  accord  with  the  latest  teachings  of  adoles- 
cent psychology. 

(i)  So  far  as  interest  is  concerned,  the  teacher  can  depend 
largely  upon  the  natural  interest  and  curiosity  of  young  people 
in  any  subject  that  touches  life  in  general  and  especially  that 
affects  their  own  personal  interests  and  welfare.  The  success- 
ful teacher  will  take  advantage  of  this  natural  curiosity,  guide 
it  into  wholesome  channels,  and  keep  it  from  becoming  morbid 
and  disquieting.  This  can  best  be  done  by  a  simple,  matter- 
of-fact,  scientific  presentation;  an  unembarrassed  and  matter- 
of-course  manner  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  will  tend  to  allay 
any  mysterious  or  unwholesome  notions  that  may  disturb  the 
pupils. 

(2)  In  the  treatment  of  all  sex  subjects  with  adolescents  the 
teacher  will  do  well  to  keep  in  mind  the  significance  of  the  new 
birth  to  the  individual,  its  influence  on  his  thinking,  sympathies, 
and  ambitions,  as  well  as  on  his  passions  and  emotions.  The 
awakening  of  the  new  power  to  reason  suggests  that  one  of 
its  functions  is  to  supersede  and  control  the  instincts  and  check 
the  impulses.  Any  teaching  at  this  time  that  does  not  make 
the  most  of  the  budding  ideals  and  the  deepening  convictions 
and  the  new  altruism  falls  far  short  of  its  possibilities;  psychic 
evolution  must  be  made  to  react  helpfully  on  the  vigorous 
biological  developments  that  are  in  progress.  These  sugges- 
tions apply  especially  to  the  latter  part  of  middle  adolescence. 
The  dictum  of  the  new  education,  "Youth  is  the  golden  age 
of  life,"  is  just  as  suggestive  in  connection  with  sex  education 
as  it  is  when  lighting  any  other  dark  spot  in  the  field  of  secondary 
education.  Dr.  Winfield  S.  Hall,  one  of  the  highest  authorities 
on  this  matter,  says:  "In  the  presentation  of  no  subject  does 
the  teacher  require  a  greater  knowledge  and  insight  into  the 
psychology  of  youth  than  is  required  in  the  teaching  of  sex 
hygiene." 


332  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

(3)  Although  it  is  not  necessary  to  teach  a  great  amount  of 
botany  or  zoology,  the  teaching  concerning  sex  should  be  based 
on  a  broad  knowledge  of  biology;  much  of  the  instruction  may 
well  be  given  as  illustrative  of  important  biological  principles; 
that  is,  much  of  the  instruction  can  be  made  more  impressive 
and  at  the  same  time  kept  clear  of  undesirable  suggestiveness 
if  it  is  made  incidental  to  other  teaching  or  incorporated  in 
regular  lessons  in  biology  and  physiology.  In  other  words, 
nearly  all  the  instruction  may  be  given  as  completing  the  pupils' 
knowledge  of  nature  and  nature's  methods.  If  these  sugges- 
tions are  sound,  it  follows  that  (a)  sex  education  is  not  to  be 
added  as  a  new  subject  for  study,  and  that  (b)  part  of  the 
teacher's  equipment  is  a  firm  grasp  of  biological  principles 
and  a  practical  knowledge  of  human  physiology  and  hygiene. 

(4)  The  language  in  which  the  information  is  conveyed  should 
be  carefully  chosen  and  always  scientific;  the  term  "sex  edu- 
cation" and  the  like  will  of  course  be  avoided,  as  this  would 
tend  to  give  the  whole  matter  a  place  apart  in  the  pupil's 
thinking,  whereas  the  aim  is  to  incorporate  it  with  his  body  of 
general  scientific  knowledge.  Much  of  the  instruction  can  be 
given  as  informal  talks  which  occur  in  their  proper  scientific 
setting.  The  lesson  should  close  with  other  than  sex  topics, 
so  that  the  pupils  will  leave  the  classroom  thinking  and  talking 
about  other  things  and  thus  be  reheved  of  possible  embarrass- 
ment. The  thoughtful  teacher  will  not  use  language  or  deal 
with  topics  that  tend  to  suggest  sensual  imagery.  It  will 
be  remembered,  too,  that,  contrary  to  our  aim  in  general  edu- 
cation to  teach  in  such  a  way  as  to  stimulate  further  thought 
and  investigation,  we  must  try  to  satisfy  curiosity  completely 
and  thus  lessen  the  danger  of  brooding  over  matters  of  sex. 
It  is  best  not  to  ask  pupils  to  discuss  any  sex  topics  before 
the  class;  but  they  should  be  encouraged  to  ask  questions 
in  writing,  some  of  which  will  be  answered  before  the  class, 
while  a  few  may  best  be  discussed  privately.    The  morbid 


SEX  EDUCATION  333 

and  pathological  aspects  of  the  subject  must  never  be  em- 
phasized with  high-school  pupils.  The  teacher  will  always 
guard  carefully  the  self-respect  of  every  pupil  in  the  group. 

Social  workers  and  other  thoughtful  people  who  have  contact 
with  the  actual  problems  of  individual  and  social  welfare  are 
united  in  their  opinion  that  the  only  rational  hope  for  a  real 
and  important  forward  movement  of  the  human  race  at  pres- 
ent is  sex  education;  this  gives  great  importance  to  the  ques- 
tion, "on  whom  shall  rest  the  responsibility  for  the  instruction?'* 
In  the  foregoing  discussion  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  public- 
school  teachers  are  the  ones  best  qualified  for  this  delicate  work; 
this  is  the  opinion  of  nearly  all  who  have  expressed  themselves 
pubhcly.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  logically  the  mother 
should  instruct  her  daughter  and  the  father  his  son;  but  all 
the  statistics  that  we  have  thus  far  prove  that  this  happens 
in  a  comparatively  small  number  of  families.  In  their  replies 
to  Dr.  Exner,  "many  men  expressed  much  bitterness  against 
their  parents  for  having  failed  them  in  this  respect."  This 
has  forced  the  conclusion  that  teachers  must  represent  the 
parents  and  act  for  them  in  this  matter  until  a  generation  of 
parents  has  been  properly  prepared  for  their  duty.  It  is 
thought  that  we  are  entering  "a  transitional  period  of  two  or 
three  decades"  during  which  "the  great  truths  of  hfe  must 
be  taught  by  the  schools";  after  this  it  is  hoped  the  parents 
will  come  into  their  own;  such  would  be  an  ideal  outcome  of 
the  new  movement. 

By  training,  the  teachers  of  the  biological  sciences,  as  already 
intimated,  should  be  best  fitted  for  this  work;  nearly  all  the 
facts  to  be  taught  lie  in  this  field  of  knowledge.  But,  by  reason 
of  his  position,  there  is  no  one  connected  with  the  modem 
high  school  that  is  as  likely  to  be  practically  effective  as  the 
director  of  physical  education;  this  is  especially  true  concern- 
ing those  in  charge  of  the  boys  on  the  various  teams.  The 
athletic  coach,  if  fitted  for  the  work,  is  in  a  position  to  do  much 


334  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

incidental  and  effective  teaching  relative  to  matters  of  sex*, 
because  of  the  nature  of  his  work,  he  is  in  closer  touch  with  the 
boys  than  are  the  other  members  of  the  faculty,  and  can  speak 
with  more  persuasive  authority  on  the  relation  between  right 
living  and  success;  and  the  coach  can  hold  before  his  players  a 
motive  to  right  conduct  that  is  likely  to  make  a  powerful  ap- 
peal. Then,  too,  the  vigorous  training  that  he  demands  of 
his  boys  greatly  aids  in  reducing  the  sex  strain  and  makes 
right  conduct  much  easier  for  the  adolescent.  Whoever  may 
undertake  the  work,  the  most  important  qualifications,  as  in 
other  cases  where  personal  influence  determines,  are  a  strong 
and  pleasing  personaHty,  tact,  and  an  overpowering  convic- 
tion concerning  its  vital  import.  Right  conduct  is  the  ulti- 
mate aim,  and  this  is  most  Ukely  to  be  realized  through  a  strong 
personal  appeal. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
MORAL  EDUCATION 

It  is  entirely  fitting  and  perfectly  logical,  that,  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  adolescent  problems,  a  chapter  on  "Sex  EducatioiP' 
should  be  followed  by  a  consideration  of  the  problem  of  moral 
education.  Many  times  in  the  preceding  chapters  the  close 
and  causal  connection  between  sex  development  and  the  other 
adolescent  characteristics  has  been  noted;  and  it  has  been 
pointed  out  that  many  of  the  impulses  and  traits  which  appear 
at  this  time  are,  when  scientifically  considered,  really  secondary 
sex  characters.  The  best  authorities  on  the  subject  are  agreed 
that  a  very  large  part  of  the  prevalent  personal,  domestic,  and 
social  wrong-living  and  immorality  has  its  origin  in  sex  or  some 
of  its  manifestations;  and  they  are  also  agreed  that  many  of 
those  physical  and  mental  powers,  which  are  at  the  foundation 
of  our  greatest  happiness  and  satisfaction,  our  most  beautiful, 
altruistic,  and  spiritual  qualities,  and  our  sublime  aspirations 
and  ideals  appear  only  at  the  time  and  in  connection  with  the 
proper  evolution  of  the  sex  functions  and  that  sex  is  the  motor 
power  behind  these  desirable  human  traits.  These  facts  are 
illustrative  of  the  complete  unity  of  human  nature. 

No  argument  is  needed  to  establish  the  proposition,  that  the 
building  of  moral  character  is  the  paramount  aim  of  all  worthy 
education.  If  the  pubHc  schools  of  this  country  fail  in  this 
supreme  function,  we  know  from  the  lessons  of  history  what 
our  doom  will  be.  The  keen  realization  of  the  momentous 
issues  involved,  combined  with  an  appreciation  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  adolescence  in  the  development  of  the  highest  moral 
living  of  which  the  individual  is  capable,  has  recently  led  many 

335 


336  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

excellent  students  of  education  to  propose  and  urge  that  there 
be  placed  in  every  high  school  "distinct  courses  in  moral  in- 
struction;" and  serious  and  worthy  efforts  have  been  made 
to  provide  the  material  for  such  courses  and  suggest  the  method 
of  instruction  suited  to  putting  them  into  operation.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  who  are  the  orthodox  in  this  matter,  those  who 
believe  in  the  efficacy  of  direct  and  explicit  moral  instruction, 
or  those  who  lack  faith  in  its  potency  and  even  see  possible 
dangers  that  may  grow  out  of  such  formal  instruction.  How- 
ever, for  several  years  the  question  has  been  before  us,  "Can 
morahty  be  taught?"  No  discussions  of  either  adolescence 
or  of  problems  of  secondary  education  that  aim  at  some  degree 
of  completeness  can  very  well  omit  a  consideration  of  the  means 
and  the  possibilities  of  moral  training;  for  true  morality,  as 
has  been  shown,  is  not  possible  until  adolescence  is  reached, 
and,  if  it  fails  to  appear  during  these  formative  years,  the  battle 
is  lost.  It  is  at  the  time  of  their  sojourn  in  high  school,  too, 
that  young  people  begin  to  have  a  genuine  interest  in  national 
as  well  as  personal  ideals,  ideals  of  liberty,  justice,  equality, 
freedom,  and  the  like.  Thus  from  the  standpoint  of  training 
in  the  American  virtues  included  under  good  citizenship,  as 
well  as  personal  morals,  the  high-school  age  is  important. 

What  shall  be  the  answer  to  the  question  just  stated?  No, 
morahty  cannot  be  directly  and  explicitly  taught.  At  least 
this  is  the  negative  thesis  here  defended.  Morahty  is  not  to 
any  great  extent  an  affair  of  the  intellect;  it  takes  its  rise  from 
foundations  and  motives  much  deeper;  the  forces  which  govern 
conduct  are  largely  instinctive  and  emotional,  and  they  go 
back  for  their  origin  to  the  entire  past  of  the  human  race.  As 
Bergson  affirms,  "  we  may  think  with  only  a  small  part  of  our 
past,  but  it  is  with  our  entire  past  that  we  desire,  will,  and  act." 
There  is  nothing  in  genetic  psychology  that  should  lead  us  to 
beheve  that  we  can  build  strong  moral  characters  by  studying 
about  morahty  and  discussing  moral  precepts,  any  more  than 


MORAL  EDUCATION  337 

we  can  develop  a  love  for  beautiful  poetry  by  teaching  its  his- 
tory and  discussing  poetical  principles,  or  develop  strong  and 
responsive  muscles  by  teaching  muscle  anatomy  and  the  laws 
of  physiological  growth  and  development.  What  makes  a 
good  ball  player?  a  good  musician?  a  good  linguist?  a  good 
typist?  It  is  practice;  if  any  instruction  is  needed,  it  is  in- 
cidental; experiments  have  repeatedly  shown  that  instruction 
to  be  most  effective  must  grow  out  of  and  be  suggested  by 
practice.  What  makes  a  good  man?  It  is  being  good;  and 
men  are  good,  if  at  all,  under  good  conditions  and  good  in- 
fluences. 

Readers  who  are  familiar  with  Professor  G.  H.  Palmer's 
essays  on  "Ethical  and  Moral  Instruction  in  the  Schools" 
and  John  Dewey's  essay  on  "Moral  Principles  of  Education" 
will  see  their  influence  in  some  of  the  following  paragraphs. 

As  a  subject  of  thought  or  discussion,  morality  has  at  least 
two  aspects:  one  may  be  called  the  psychological;  and  the 
other,  the  social  aspect.  The  one  fixes  the  attention  on  the 
attitudes,  disposition,  and  intentions  of  the  individual;  the 
other  focuses  on  the  manner  in  which  the  individual  reacts  on 
his  social  environment,  being  a  matter  of  conduct  only.  Now 
psychologists  inform  us,  as  stated  above,  that  conduct  has 
its  ultimate  origin  in  the  native  instincts  and  impulses;  hence, 
if  we  are  to  influence  conduct  in  any  fundamental  and  forma- 
tive way,  it  must  be  through  the  instincts  and  impulses. 
If  the  desired  conduct  is  secured  by  any  other  means,  the  re- 
sults are  Ukely  to  be  imitative  and  mechanical,  because  the 
deeper  psychological  causes  have  been  ignored.  For  example, 
if,  in  our  ardor  to  render  moral  help,  we  appeal  to  the  judg- 
ment and  the  reasoning  powers,  we  must  remember  that  the 
workings  of  these  are  colored  and  given  their  pecuhar  bias  by 
individual  temperament,  that  temperament  is  but  another  name 
for  emotional  habits,  and  that  all  of  the  emotions  out  of  which 
these  fundamental  habits  are  formed  have  as  their  source  and 


S3^  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

their  constant  and  impelling  stimulus  one  or  more  of  the  primi- 
tive instincts.  So  much  are  both  the  moral  and  intellectual 
life  a  matter  of  temperament  that,  in  the  opinion  of  WiUiam 
James,  even  men's  philosophies  are  determined  by  "  their  tem- 
peramental cravings  and  refusals."  The  psychology  of  this 
matter  has  been  crystalHzed  in  the  aphorism,  ''the  wish  is 
father  to  the  thought." 

Again,  if  in  our  zeal  for  the  moral  welfare  of  the  adolescent 
we  appeal  to  his  conscience,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  con- 
science subjectively  considered  is  but  a  group  of  intuitive  feel- 
ings, "certain  emotions,"  as  Spencer  expresses  it,  "responding 
to  right  and  wrong  conduct." 

All  of  this  is  extremely  fundamental  in  any  study  of  moral 
education;  for  these  psychological  considerations  seem  to  say 
plainly,  put  not  your  trust  very  greatly  in  any  kind  of  intellec- 
tual appeal.  On  the  other  hand,  our  study  of  adolescence 
has  taught  us  that  the  instincts  and  feelings  are  reached  most 
surely  through  the  imagination,  when  images  supply  the  im- 
pelling forces,  or  through  concrete  social  situations  in  which 
life,  with  its  varied  and  complex  elements,  furnishes  the  stimuli 
that  prompt  instinctive  and  character-forming  conduct.  This 
doctrine  has  also  been  crystallized:  moral  qualities  and  virtues 
are  caught  not  taught. 

It  is  suggestive  to  recall  at  this  point  that  morals,  like  lan- 
guage, are  social  in  their  origin;  and  consequently  any  attempt 
to  treat  morality  as  a  purely  individual  affair  cannot  be  scien- 
tific or  effective.  Every  one  that  we  hope  to  influence  must 
be  thought  of  as  a  social  individual  in  whom  are  continually 
meeting  myriad  lines  of  spiritual  force,  all  having  their  origin 
in  other  social  individuals  and  groups,  some  contemporary 
and  some  belonging  to  distant  ages. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  as  fundamental,  too,  that  the  division 
between  conscious  and  unconscious  rectitude  in  conduct  is  a  wa- 
vering line.     This  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  think  of  the 


MORAL  EDUCATION  339 

adolescent  as  unmindful  of  conduct  or  uncritical  as  to  right  and 
wrong;  he  naturally  gives  much  thought  to  the  matter  of  conduct, 
and,  so  far  as  mere  thinking  is  concerned,  he  is  exceedingly 
discriminating;  with  puberty  there  begins  to  develop  the  power 
and  the  tendency  to  judge  action  by  motives  rather  than  by 
mere  consequences  (the  preadolescent  standards)  and  to  take 
into  account  mitigating  circumstances.  To  say  the  line  be- 
tween conscious  and  unconscious  right  action  is  wavering  is 
equivalent  to  saying  that  the  most  wholesome  and  most  forma- 
tive conduct  on  the  part  of  youth  is  that  which  is  instinctive, 
spontaneous,  and  ebulient,  resulting  from  natural  stimuli  sup- 
plied in  concrete  form  by  his  social  environment,  rather  than 
that  conduct  which  is  premeditated  and  critically  thought  out, 
either  by  or  for  the  individual.  Moreover,  the  one  who  per- 
force follows  a  straight  and  shut-in  path  develops  neither  en- 
thusiasm for  his  journey  and  its  ultimate  objective,  nor  does 
he  gain  power  to  ascend  the  hill  Difficulty  or  courage  to  fight 
Apollyon  from  his  path.  Bunyan  was  too  much  of  a  psy- 
chologist, as  well  as  theologian,  to  confine  his  hero  day  after 
day  to  any  straight  and  narrow  way.  It  is  the  zest  with  which 
an  act  is  performed  and  its  emotional  setting  that  gives  it 
formative  value  and  tends  to  make  it  become  a  habitual  mode 
of  action. 

We  should  not  ask  our  young  people  to  be  "slaves  to 
motives  and  reasons";  nor  can  we  expect  them  to  "rivit  the 
moral  life  to  logic";  nor  is  it  natural  for  them  to  control  their 
conduct  by  any  system  of  restraints  and  inhibitions;  but,  as 
urged  in  the  last  chapter,  the  highest  moral  living  of  which 
each  individual  is  capable  will  be  most  naturally  and  most 
surely  brought  about  by  a  comparatively  free,  wholesome, 
joyous,  and  above  all  vigorous  exercise  of  all  the  physical, 
mental,  and  social  powers  that  make  for  bodily  and  spiritual 
wellbeing.  It  is  a  case,  not  of  danmiing  the  turbulent  streams 
of  adolescence,  but  of  keeping  them  within  the  channels,  where 


340  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

they  fructify  and  fortify  the  individual  life  for  its  unique  con- 
tinuance and  work. 

If  this  analysis  is  correct,  it  seems  to  exclude  the  notion  that 
much  can  be  accomplished  in  the  field  of  morality  by  direct 
moral  instruction.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  to  suggest 
that  much  can  be  done  by  supplying  the  right  conditions,  — 
conditions  that  provide  for  natural  physical,  mental,  and  so- 
cial responses  on  the  part  of  youth,  the  hope  always  being 
that  these  responses  will  become  habitual  and  result  in  a  dis- 
position to  choose  the  right  and  reject  the  wrong.  If  we 
are  successful  in  this,  we  have  as  a  consummation  real  moral 
character,  capable  of  unconscious  rectitude,  "standing  four 
square  to  all  the  winds  that  blow,"  instead  of  the  careful, 
vacillating,  thought-perplexed  Hamlet  that  might  result  were 
we  successful  in  getting  impulsive  youth  to  make  conscience 
his  sole  guide  and  bring  all  matters  of  conduct  to  the  critical 
court  of  introspection;  that  is,  the  introspective  method  of 
determining  conduct  would  seem  to  be  the  logical  outcome 
of  direct  and  explicit  moral  instruction  if  successful.  Those 
who  aim  at  this  method  appear  to  ignore  a  fundamental  law 
in  human  development;  namely,  that  life  of  any  kind  is 
kindled  only  at  the  torch  of  the  life  that  is  desired. 

Palmer  reduces  the  whole  matter  to  a  sound  fundamental 
principle  when  he  says,  "According  as  the  thing  undertaken 
includes  a  creative  element  and  is  intended  to  give  expression 
to  the  personal  Ufe  of  some  one,  dependence  upon  any  system 
or  method  that  makes  a  direct  appeal  to  consciousness  becomes 
increasingly  dangerous."  Beyond  question,  the  purpose  in 
moral  education  —  nay,  in  all  education  —  is  to  create  moral 
character;  that  is,  to  fix  moral  modes  of  feeling,  thinking,  and 
willing;  and  the  habitual  moral  conduct  which  we  hope  to 
establish  must,  if  it  is  real,  give  rise  to  the  inner,  personal 
life  of  the  individual.  Palmer  is  right,  too,  because  the 
ultimate  thing  sought   in   this   case   is   not   knowledge   but 


MORAL  EDUCATION  341 

conduct,  and  not  conduct  that  results  from  careful  choosing 
and  calculating,  but  conduct  that  is  instinctive,  sure,  and  firm. 
It  would  seem  to  be  the  part  of  wisdom  to  lay  direct  hold  on 
the  thing  desired  when  this  is  possible. 

Further,  when  we  attempt  to  reach  conduct  through  the  intel- 
lect, we  evidently  have  in  mind  conscious  action;  and, as  Palmer 
points  out  in  his  discussion  of  the  matter,  there  are  large  tracts 
of  practical  life  that  he  altogether  beyond  the  field  and  con- 
trol of  consciousness.  For  more  than  a  third  of  a  century 
psychologists  have  recognized  the  subconscious  self  as  an  entity 
that  must  always  be  reckoned  with  in  our  dealing  with  human 
beings;  from  this  region  are  continually  welling  up  obscure  but 
potent  influences  in  the  form  of  unaccountable  impulses,  in- 
hibitions, hidden  motives,  passions,  and  prejudices.  There 
are  unmistakable  signs  that  in  this  region  of  "subconscious 
incubations"  are  located  the  latent  germs  of  much  of  our  non- 
rational  conduct,  which  plays  such  a  large  part  in  our  lives; 
it  is  the  non-rational,  automatic,  impulsive  part  of  conduct 
that  is  of  supreme  interest  to  him  who  would  wield  a  formative 
influence  in  the  field  of  morals.  There  are  good  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  entire  stream  of  consciousness,  especially 
the  billows  of  feeling,  passion,  and  emotion,  has  here  in  this 
deep  and  unexplored  realm  of  the  soul  a  reservoir  for  the  storage 
of  those  rich  and  complex  elements  that  seemingly  without 
call  reappear  as  moral  conduct  and  character.  This  is  one 
way  of  justifying  Dr.  Bagley's  contention  that,  "as  the  instinct 
is  basic  to  reason  and  sometimes  overrides  it,  so  the  affective 
[or  emotional]  elements  in  an  ideal  overshadow  the  intellectual 
factors."  If  this  account  of  the  part  played  by  the  subcon- 
scious self  is  correct,  a  direct  appeal  to  the  intellect  by  means 
of  moral  instruction  is,  to  say  the  least,  seriously  inadequate. 

The  attempt  to  aid  young  people  by  means  of  direct  moral 
instruction  seems  to  take  for  granted  that  in  some  way  one 
can  make  a  spiritual  gift;  it  appears  to  be  an  endeavor  to  hand 


342  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

over  ready-made  something  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  of  moral 
value  to  the  recipient.    This  surely  is  a  false  assumption.    As 
a  result  of  living  together  during  the  past  generations,  man 
has  discovered  through  social  experience  that  there  are  certain 
modes  of  conduct  on  which  the  welfare  of  the  individual,  taken 
in  the  long  run,  depends;    this  wholesome  manner  of  acting 
has  come  to  be  embodied  in  a  code  of  moral  laws  or  precepts; 
they  are  far  from  being  arbitrary  prescriptions  imposed  by 
authority;    rather  they  are  natural  laws,  merely  telling  what 
conduct  works  best.    These  moral  standards  are  the  result  of 
a  long  race  struggle;   and  they  have  finally  been  accepted  as 
guides  by  the  successful  individual,  usually  after  some  sort  of 
a  struggle  similar,  perhaps,  in  kind  to  that  of  the  race.    When 
obtained  in  this  way,  these  moral  decrees  have  real  and  prac- 
tical significance.     The  individual  must  win  his  social  and 
moral  inheritance  if  it  is  to  be  of  value.      Exercise  of  moral 
faculties  is  just  as  vital  as  exercise  of  the  physical  powers  and 
organs;    the  biological  sciences  teach  the  inevitable  tragedies 
that  result  from  a  lack  of  effort;  and  moral  atrophy  is  just  as 
certain  as  physical  loss  of  power.    The  law  of  work  or  struggle 
is  part  of  the  law  of  evolution.     Christian  people  are  wont 
to  quote  Paul:   "work  out  your  own  salvation."    Some  would 
have  us  tell  youth  in  what  salvation  consists;  perhaps  they  will 
listen,  but  are  we  sure  they  will  learn?    As  in  other  affairs 
of  nature,  what  costs  nothing  comes  to  nothing.    Moral  truth 
is  a  food  that  cannot  be  bolted  whole,  it  must  be  assimilated  in 
order  to  give  real  growth  and  strength;   to  this  end  the  moral 
muscles  must  be  used  with  vigor.     Dr.  Bagley  shows  his  knowl- 
edge of  youthful  nature  when  he  asserts  that  every  overt  at- 
tempt to  force  adult  standards  "is  bound  to  be  abortive." 
"There  seems  to  be  almost  an  instinctive  tendency  among 
youth  to  resent  the  implication  that  they  have  anything  to 
learn  from  the  experience  of  their  elders;"    and  according  to 
St.  Paul's  doctrine,  are  they  altogether  wrong? 


MORAL  EDUCATION  343 

Confidence  in  moral  instruction  seems  to  be  based  on  the 
further  assumption  that  knowing  what  is  right  will  lead  to 
doing  what  is  right;  whereas  only  a  slight  knowledge  of  ado- 
lescent nature  is  necessary  to  make  one  aware  of  the  serious 
hiatus  which  is  common  between  the  two.  This  notion  again 
ignores  the  fact  that  the  adolescent  is  a  creature  of  instincts 
and  impulses;  and  that,  because  the  impulses  spring  from  man's 
physical  and  psychical  natures,  they  are  in  a  certain  sense  no 
more  under  his  direct  control  than  the  other  forces  of  nature. 
The  adolescent  naturally  does  what  he  wants  to  do  and  what 
seems  at  the  time  easiest.  That  he  is  a  being  of  impulses 
suggests  that  we  must  manage  to  set  loose  and  give  scope  to 
his  good  impulses,  and  he  has  many.  Sometimes  we  will  aid 
in  transmuting  the  lower  values  into  the  higher;  and  some- 
times, as  in  sex  education,  we  will  assist  him  in  controlling  one 
emotion  or  instinct  by  another.  The  good  impulses  and  the 
higher  values  naturally  grow  out  of  healthy  activities;  and 
careful  study  of  the  matter  shows  that  many  of  the  instincts 
and  emotions  that  must  be  held  in  check  have  their  correspond- 
ing instinctive  or  emotional  antidote;  for  example,  developing 
adolescent  altruism  may  overcome  instinctive  selfishness, 
sympathy  should  displace  cruelty,  self-control  supported  by 
pride  may  rob  anger  of  its  danger,  chivalry  is  a  natural  correc- 
tive for  the  sex  impulses,  emulation  and  the  desire  to  please  may 
act  as  a  counterpoise  for  any  impulse  that  we  wish  to  control, 
and  with  some  during  adolescence,  as  we  have  seen,  the  reli- 
gious motive  is  very  powerful  and  may  *'tum  aside  the  fiery 
darts  of  the  wicked."  We  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  think- 
ing that  repressed  desires  and  emotions  are  killed;  they  are 
the  noxious  growth  ready  to  spring  up  again  when  the  forced 
repression,  either  intellectual  or  other,  has  ceased;  they  must 
be  displaced  by  some  wholesome  plant  of  vigorous  growth, 
and  for  the  adolescent  this  plant  must  always  be  found  in  his 
social  environment.    To  change  the  form  of  expression,  his 


344  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

ideas  must  be  emotionalized  and  become  dynamic  ideals  by 
some  kind  of  genuine  social  experience. 

The  analogy  between  moral  laws  and  physical  laws  alluded 
to  above  is  interesting  and  significant;  but  there  is  a  very  im- 
portant difference  between  the  workings  of  these  two  sets  of 
laws,  which  is  also  interesting  and  significant.  The  laws  which 
pertain  to  life  and  character  are  much  more  complex;  and, 
because  of  this  and  because  of  the  uniqueness  of  individual 
human  nature,  the  same  experiences  will  result  very  differently 
for  different  individuals.  Thus  we  can  have  no  assurance 
that  because  a  moral  principle  or  precept  has  worked  it  will 
always  work.  We  must  inculcate  moraUty  by  the  laboratory 
method,  but  we  must  not  expect  laboratory  precision  and  cer- 
tainty of  results.  Life  and  personality  are  ever-creative,  hence 
the  eternal  variation  in  the  moral  realm.  All  these  considera- 
tions emphasize  the  futility  of  trusting  greatly  to  definite  pre- 
cepts. We  are  wont  to  quote  Shakespeare:  "to  thine  own  self 
be  true;"  then  some  one  proceeds  to  tell  us  what  moral  truth 
is  in  the  abstract.  Thus  again  we  reach  the  conclusion  that 
morality  is  to  be  learned  only  by  practice.  It  is  an  art.  Ethics 
is  the  corresponding  science  that  will  be  very  interesting  and 
possibly  helpful  later. 

Sometimes  it  would  almost  seem  that  the  advocates  of  some 
system  of  direct  moral  instruction  are  confusing  moral  ideas 
and  ideas  about  morahty.  There  is  of  course  no  psychological 
reason  why  ideas  concerning  morality  should  have  any  more 
influence  on  conduct  than  ideas  concerning  anything  else. 
There  is  nothing  inherent  in  the  nature  of  such  ideas  that 
insures  a  vital  union  with  character,  and  without  this  union 
nothing  will  result  in  terms  of  Hfe.  Learning  the  moral  vo- 
cabulary is  a  very  different  thing  from  learning  moral  values; 
one  is  likely  to  be  largely  a  matter  of  words  and  ideas,  which 
by  themselves  do  not  constitute  a  vital  force;  the  other  comes 
in  the  way  that  we  learn  other  values,  which  is  through  actual 


ORAL  EDUCATION  345 

contact  and  experience  in  the  field  where  the  values  are  deter- 
mined, in  this  case  amid  the  interplay  of  human  relationships. 

There  are  certain  dangers  that  naturally  beset  explicit  moral 
instruction;  the  nature  of  these  dangers  varies  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  individual.  For  example,  a  sensitive  nature, 
at  the  time  when  the  moral  sense  makes  its  appearance,  would 
be  likely,  under  the  stress  of  vigorous  moral  instruction,  to 
develop  a  morbid  sensitiveness  or  an  exaggerated  punctilious- 
ness, effects  which  are  very  unfortunate  for  both  the  individual 
and  his  associates.  L.  W.  Kline  studied  the  returns  from  2594 
children,  and,  according  to  Hall,  many  of  these  "bear  unmis- 
takable marks  that  in  homes  and  schools  moralization  has  been 
excessive  and  has  produced  a  sentimental  type  of  morality  and 
often  a  feverish  desire  to  express  ethical  views."  This  danger, 
too,  is  greatest  in  the  case  of  adolescents  of  the  finest  fiber. 
The  opposite  danger,  also  unfortunate  for  the  individual  and 
the  community,  lies  in  the  fact  that  normal,  healthy  children 
become  hardened  against  talk  that  savors  of  preaching;  there 
comes  a  time  when  they  prefer  little  talk  and  much  action. 
This  indifference  to  what  is  said  on  so  vital  a  matter  may  lead 
to  lack  of  responsiveness  to  legitimate  moral  claims. 

But  we  are  repeatedly  reminded  that  "youth  is  the  battle- 
ground of  the  moral  life;"  and  when  a  serious  battle  is  on  we 
feel  that  we  must  take  a  hand  and  join  forces  against  the  enemy. 
If  we  are  not  sure  of  rendering  aid  by  any  direct  method,  can 
anything  be  done?  Yes,  there  is  much  to  do,  and  adolescence 
is  the  time  to  do  it.  To  be  permanently  effective,  the  help 
rendered  must  be  social-psychological.  These  high-school 
boys  and  girls  have  been  born  into  a  social  environment  which 
is  already  largely  determined,  and  this  environment  has  among 
its  elements  certain  standards  of  conduct  to  which  they  are 
expected  to  conform.  Hence  the  whole  problem  is  to  get  the 
pupils  to  accept  this  moral  world  which  awaits  them  and  adjust 
themselves  to  its  demands.    To  do  this,  the  school,  the  family, 


346  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

the  church,  and  any  other  institution  with  authority  and  in- 
fluence must  reproduce  as  far  as  possible  the  conditions  of  the 
best  surrounding  social  life.  It  is  not  a  matter  of  teaching 
morals  but  of  getting  individuals  and  groups  to  live  morals. 
To  this  end  we  try  to  create  a  "moral  atmosphere,"  which  they 
are  to  breathe.  The  school  with  a  high  moral  tone  teaches 
in  a  subtile  and  indirect  way  all  the  time,  in  the  classroom, 
at  general  assembly,  and  especially  in  connection  with  all 
athletic  and  social  activities.  Moral  issues  are  constantly 
arising,  and,  if  these  are  settled  right  by  getting  the  right  thing 
done,  there  need  be  little  discussion  or  moralizing.  In  the 
school  all  the  higher  interests  of  humanity  may  be  dupHcated; 
the  pupils  may  learn  the  forward  and  upward  look;  and  the 
virtues  here  enacted  will  be  their  own  justification.  We  may 
safely  put  our  trust  in  the  efficiency  of  this  form  of  moral  train- 
ing; because  every  lesson  takes  on  a  dramatic  interest,  and, 
when  the  spirit  is  good,  all  the  moral  precepts  are  supported 
and  enforced  by  the  social  will. 

What  has  been  said  thus  far  is  not  intended  to  preclude 
incidental  moral  instruction;  this  may  be  profitable,  especially 
when  the  pupils  ask  for  help  or  the  occasion  strongly  suggests 
it.  When  the  youth  has  reached  his  later  teens  and  is  be- 
ginning to  live  in  the  higher  moral  region  and  is  peering  upward 
for  light,  there  should  be  some  one  waiting  for  the  privilege  of 
rendering  high  personal  service.  *' Happy  the  youth,"  says 
Palmer,  "who  during  the  transition  time  has  a  wise  friend  at 
hand  to  answer  a  question,  to  speak  a  steadying  word,  to  open 
up  the  vista  which  at  the  moment  needs  to  be  cleared.  Only 
one  in  close  personal  touch  is  serviceable  here."  It  is  invariably 
true,  as  indicated  by  the  testimony  given  in  after  years,  that 
the  teacher  who  gave  purpose,  inspired  confidence,  and  aroused 
ambitions  is  the  one  most  valued,  rather  than  the  one  who 
impressed  with  his  scholarship  or  dazzled  with  his  brilliant 
classroom  technique;  and,  most  important  of  all,  life's  ideals 


MORAL  EDUCATION  347 

and  the  highest  ethical  truths  are  never  seen  perfectly  by  youth 
except  when  embodied  in  a  personality.  Thus  moral  influence 
is  not  something  for  which  a  method  can  be  proposed  or  a  de- 
partment provided;  it  is  more  in  the  nature  of  a  continuous 
benediction  coming  from  those  who  live  on  the  higher  spiritual 
planes,  yet  in  the  closest  personal  touch  with  youth. 

When  the  wholesome  moral  tone  or  atmosphere,  of  which 
the  reader  understands  the  importance,  is  lacking,  it  cannot 
be  created  in  a  day  or  perhaps  a  year.  The  time  and  effort 
required  to  bring  about  anything  so  fundamental  and  involv- 
ing so  many  activities  and  people  will  vary  with  conditions; 
and  it  will  only  result  from  sympathetic  cooperation  and  deal- 
ing with  the  pupils  on  a  human  basis.  There  must  be  some  one 
with  courage  and  force  of  character  to  take  a  square  and  firm 
stand  on  all  moral  issues  that  arise,  to  place  responsibility  as 
rapidly  as  possible  on  everybody,  to  insist  on  good  work  in  the 
classroom,  the  social  organizations,  and  the  athletic  field,  to 
place  the  bluffer,  the  loafer,  and  the  liar  in  their  true  light,  and 
to  demand  with  smiling  firmness  the  utmost  frankness,  cour- 
tesy, and  refinement  at  all  times.  When  these  things  are  pres- 
ent, the  school  is  doing  a  great  moral  work  for  the  community; 
and  this  work  it  can  do  more  effectively  than  any  other  in- 
stitution, because  it  is  a  complete  social  unit  with  definite  pur- 
poses; it  is  an  epitome  of  the  world  which  will  soon  receive 
the  pupils,  and  its  work  is  of  such  a  nature  that  each  must 
constantly  have  regard  for  the  welfare  and  rights  of  others. 

This  suggests  the  relation  of  rules  and  regulations  to  moral 
training.  Outward  conformity  to  the  social  requirements  of 
the  school  and  its  many  organizations  can  be  secured  by  means 
of  thoroughly  enforced  rules.  But  life  and  its  requirements 
are  too  varied  and  subtile  to  have  all  its  moves  determined  by 
rule;  no  systems  of  school-made  laws  can  forestall  all  ''spiritual 
disasters."  Movement  by  rules  precludes  real  moral  expe- 
riences.    Rules  are   ready-made  judgments  which   must  be 


348  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS* 

accepted  and  naturally  have  no  vital  meaning  for  those  who 
obey.  Living  by  rule  may  be  another  form  of  bolting  moral 
pabulum,  instead  of  a  true  means  of  spiritual  livelihood.  In 
a  sense,  the  imposition  of  rules  implies  a  lack  of  faith  in  those 
for  whom  the  rules  are  made,  a  serious  matter  when  adolescents 
are  involved.  Few  outside  of  a  Prussian  system  would  claim 
that  it  is  the  function  of  the  school  to  create  docile,  passive 
creatures,  comfortable  as  they  are  to  deal  with.  Fear  is  not 
the  end,  but  only  the  beginning  of  wisdom,  as  the  Psalmist 
assures  us.  There  must  be  inculcated  a  sense  of  orderly  free- 
dom and  independence.  If  regulations  are  needed,  the  pupils 
will  cooperate  in  the  making  of  these  regulations.  Social  and 
moral  judgment,  like  the  organs  of  the  body,  can  grow  only 
by  self-directed  activity;  self-determined,  moral  action  weaves 
the  fibers  that  form  character.  This  does  not  mean  "self- 
government";  high-school  pupils  always  fail  in  this.  Neither 
does  it  mean  indulging  the  whims  and  caprices  of  the  pupils; 
this  would  be  fatal  to  sound  moral  growth. 

In  the  preceding  discussion  the  reader  has  not  found  any- 
thing radically  new  either  in  what  is  suggested  or  in  the  method 
proposed.  It  is  simply  urged  that  the  work  of  the  school  be 
planned  and  carried  on  with  the  utmost  faith  in  the  purposes 
and  judgments  of  the  pupils,  that  the  whole  be  permeated  with 
a  spirit  of  cooperation,  and  that  there  must  be  a  sweet  reason- 
ableness running  through  it  all;  for  the  adolescent  has  slight 
respect  for  laws  based  on  mere  authority.  There  has  been 
emphasized  the  importance  of  self-control  and  personal  respon- 
sibility, learned  through  the  operation  of  the  pupils'  own  cor- 
porate life,  this  life  to  be  so  directed  as  to  unify  every  kind  of 
wholesome  human  activity. 

In  these  discussions  the  word  "punishment  "has  not  occurred, 
a  word  to  which  Spencer  gives  such  a  conspicuous  place  in  his 
classic  chapter  on  "Moral  Education."  A  full  consideration 
of  the  subject  of  penalties  and  punishments  properly  belongs 


MORAL  EDUCATION  349 

to  a  book  on  school  discipline.  However,  when  the  regular 
work  and  the  other  activities  are  really  socialized,  the  Spencer- 
ian  theory  of  natural  consequences  will  obtain;  for  the  judg- 
ment of  the  student  body,  when  given  adequate  means  of  ex- 
pression, will  provide  both  the  social  rewards  and  punish- 
ments, effective  in  all  except  extreme  cases.  Both  the  moral 
motives  and  the  social  awards  are  "contributed  by  the  conse- 
quences which  the  act  naturally  produces." 

Thus  far  nothing  has  been  said  about  the  relation  of  the  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum,  which  occupy  most  of  the  school  time, 
to  moral  education,  except  to  intimate  that  any  subject  can 
be  so  socialized  and  vitalized  as  to  make  it  contribute  to  the 
moral  growth  of  the  pupils.  But  there  are  certain  subjects 
that  more  readily  and  effectively  lend  aid  in  this  culminating 
function  of  the  school,  due  chiefly  to  the  human  elements  in 
their  content,  or  to  the  eternal  principles  to  which  they  give 
expression.  They  are  the  subjects  that  embody  the  best 
thoughts,  the  most  generous  emotions,  and  relate  the  worthy 
deeds  of  past  generations.  These  can  be  made  to  help  greatly 
in  forming  ideals  and  in  solving  life's  problems.  The  studies 
are  history,  biography,  natural  science,  literature,  art,  and 
English  expression.  To  produce  the  moral  influence  desired, 
they  must  be  presented  imaginatively  and  whole-heartedly. 

To  the  adolescent,  human  beings  when  studied  through  their 
acts  are  most  engrossing;  for  the  adolescent  is  himself  just 
becoming  a  human  being  in  the  deeper  sense,  and  he  is  naturally 
interested  in  anything  human.  It  is  a  time  of  hero-worship 
and  enthusiasm  for  great  deeds  and  great  thoughts,  especially 
if  they  are  given  their  true  emotional  setting;  the  adolescent 
is  thus  made  to  live  vicariously  the  lives  and  deeds  of  the  great 
ones  of  the  earth.  When  incarnated,  moral  truths  and  prin- 
ciples make  an  effective  appeal.  Hence  the  influence  of  liter- 
ature, biography,  and  history:  they  are  replete  with  the  doings 
of  great  souls;    and,  because  they  are  human,  they  enforce 


350  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

their  own  lessons  without  a  moral  appendix.  In  other  words, 
they  are  rich  in  moral  content  and  effective  for  moral  instruc- 
tion. History  shows  forth  the  workings  of  life  in  the  nations: 
and  biography,  in  the  individual.  They  both  "constantly 
typify  certain  universal  ideals,"  as  Dr.  Bagley  asserts;  "cour^ 
age,  fortitude,  initiative,  efficiency,  foresight, —  in  fact  every 
conceivable  human  virtue  may  be  given  a  surer  footing  in  the 
individual  mind  through  the  study  of  history  and  biography." 
Literature,  as  a  whole,  interprets  life  in  all  its  phases;  and 
from  the  standpoint  of  content  is  based  on  fundamental  instincts 
and  provides  vicarious  gratification  for  "desires  that  cannot 
be  realized  directly."  They  all  help  to  enrich  and  clarify  the 
meaning  of  life.  But  unless  the  pupils  are  really  stirred,  these 
subjects  will  fail  of  their  natural  influence.  Dr.  E.  O.  Sisson 
throws  out  this  caution:  "Human  studies  may  be  quite  de- 
humanized either  by  intellectual  abstraction  or  by  spiritual 
indifference,  and  may  then  become  rather  immoral  by  accus- 
toming youth  to  look  with  untouched  heart  upon  ideas  and 
images  that  ought  to  arouse  the  emotions  of  any  true  man." 

The  moral  advantages  and  dangers  of  oral  and  written  expres- 
sion have  been  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter  on  debating. 
One  of  the  most  important  by-products  that  may  come  from 
any  kind  of  English  expression  is  training  in  self -honesty; 
it  should  make  the  pupil  aware  of  his  own  ignorance  and  con- 
tinually force  him  to  realize  that  nothing  short  of  clear  and 
adequate  knowledge  of  the  truths  and  principles  involved  in 
his  theme  will  insure  success.  The  moral  effect  of  this  work 
depends  largely  upon  the  subjects  chosen  (whether  they  de- 
mand ethical  thinking)  and  the  standards  of  originality  and 
truth-telling  that  are  maintained.  The  pupil  must  image 
clearly,  report  accurately,  catch  the  viewpoint  of  those  for 
whom  he  writes,  and  proceed  to  give  the  truth  exactly  as  he 
sees  it.  All  who  have  had  opportunities  for  observation  out- 
side the  schools  realize  how  low  are  the  ideals  that  generally 


MORAL  EDUCATION  351 

prevail  concerning  all  the  qualities  that  are  included  in  honest 
composition. 

The  study  of  art  or  any  form  of  beauty,  as  we  learned  in  a 
previous  chapter,  makes  a  stronger  appeal  now  than  at  any 
other  time;  and  any  form  of  art  which  really  absorbs  the  in- 
terest provides  a  safe  means  of  long-circuiting  the  impulses 
and  emotions  that  are  seeking  an  outlet.  There  are  many 
forms  of  art  work  which  supply  natural  opportunities  for 
training  in  cooperation.  The  enthusiastic  student  of  any  art 
soon  realizes  that  there  are  other  than  material  values  in  the 
world  and  he  comes  to  appreciate  Keats's  "First  in  beauty 
shall  be  first  in  might." 

The  sciences  furnish  training  in  truth-getting  and  truth- 
telling;  they  make  for  open-mindedness;  as  Neuman  has  urged, 
they  "  deal  with  a  realm  of  etemaJ  principles  which  the  caprices 
and  feelings  of  mankind  neither  create  nor  alter;"  and  they 
draw  attention  to  the  heroic  in  the  lives  of  those  who  have  pa« 
tiently  labored  in  obscurity  for  the  good  of  their  fellow-men. 
Here  again  the  method  of  approach  and  the  spirit  of  the  work 
determine  the  moral  value  resulting. 

Thus,  whatever  instnunents  of  moral  training  we  consider, 
or  whatever  phase  of  the  moral  Ufe  we  emphasize,  we  always 
arrive  at  the  idea  that  moral  education,  especially  during  ado- 
lescence, is  a  social  process.  He  who.  has  gained  the  power 
to  observe  correctly  and  comprehend  social  situations  and  who 
has  the  self-control  and  the  desire  to  react  habitually  in  the 
interest  of  the  broadest  social  service  is  perfectly  trained 
in  morality. 


CHAPTER  XX 
PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL 

Frequently,  in  the  discussions  of  the  preceding  chapters, 
there  has  been  suggested  various  Hues  of  conduct  that  it  would 
seem  best  for  high-school  pupils  to  pursue  if  their  school  life 
is  to  meet  their  needs  in  the  most  helpful  way  possible;  but, 
from  a  practical  standpoint,  perhaps  too  little  has  been  said 
as  to  how  we  are  to  get  the  proverbially  self-willed  adolescents 
to  do  what  we  believe  their  own  interests  demand.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  this  final  chapter  to  attempt  to  render  help  in  this 
important  and  delicate  matter.  It  will  be  understood  that  mere 
outward  conformity  to  the  wishes  of  those  in  authority  is  not 
the  thing  aimed  at;  this  kind  of  conformity  is  usually  easy 
to  obtain,  but  it  is  here  assumed  that  the  reader  is  not  interested 
in  any  such  external  submission  to  authority. 

The  controlling  thought  of  the  chapter  may  be  summarized 
by  saying  that  much  knowledge  of  human  nature,  more  es- 
pecially adolescent  nature,  is  what  is  most  needed  in  order  to 
appeal  successfully  to  high-school  pupils;  but  this  common- 
place statement  is  too  abstract  and  general  to  be  very  helpful 
in  any  practical  way.  However,  the  reader  will  readily  see 
that  what  is  said  of  each  topic  discussed  is  but  a  recognition  of 
some  phase  of  human  nature  as  we  find  it  exhibited  in  boys  and 
girls  of  high-school  age.  We  are  to  attempt  to  deal  with  people 
as  they  are,  with  a  view  to  making  them  what  they  should  be, 
the  only  practical  working  principle. 

I.  All  men  that  have  been  able  to  deal  successfully  with  their 
fellow-men  have  been  guided  by  this  principle.  One  of  the 
most  instructive  examples  of  a  practical  application  of  at  least 

352 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  353 

one  aspect  of  this  principle  is  embodied  in  the  famous  funeral 
oration  delivered  by  the  great  Pericles  at  the  close  of  the  first 
campaign  of  the  Pelc^onnesian  War.  This  oration  is  a  splen- 
did example  of  ancient  oratory,  remarkable  and  stirring  in 
its  eloquence  and  wonderful  in  its  effect.  As  we  read  them, 
the  great  orations  which  Demosthenes  hurled  against  Philip 
of  Macedon  are  stirring  and  wonderful  in  their  eloquence; 
but  they  failed  completely  in  what  the  world's  greatest  orator 
sought  to  accomplish;  they  did  not  rouse  his  people  to  their 
duty.  Not  so  with  the  funeral  oration  of  Pericles,  of  which 
Thucydides  has  left  us  an  admirable  report,  a  report  which 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable  memorials 
of  antiquity.  It  was  the  custom  in  ancient  Greece,  after  a 
campaign  or  battle  had  been  fought,  to  assemble  the  people 
and  hold  an  imposing  public  ceremony,  the  chief  feature  of 
which  was  a  funeral  oration  pronounced  by  one  of  their  great 
orators  over  the  remains  of  their  dead  countrymen  who  had 
given  their  lives  that  their  coimtry  might  live.  Pericles  is 
known  to  us  as  a  great  patron  of  art,  but  he  was  also  a  practical 
man  of  affairs  and  a  wise  statesman,  who  knew  his  country 
and  its  institutions  perfectly  and  saw  deeply  into  the  nature 
and  temperament  of  his  discouraged  people.  As  their  orator, 
he  vividly  outlined  for  them  the  growth  and  development  of 
Athenian  institutions;  he  urged  upon  them  anew  their  wonder- 
ful intellectual  advantage;  and  he  pointed  out  with  due  em- 
phasis their  moral  and  social  virtues.  In  other  words,  he  held 
before  them  their  own  better  selves;  and  thus  it  was  that  he 
sent  them  to  their  homes  with  new  courage  and  resolution. 
This  was  a  great  day  in  ancient  Athens;  in  a  sense  we  may 
say  it  was  the  day  of  its  new  birth.  May  we  not  say  that  some- 
times it  is  a  great  day  in  the  Ufe  of  a  boy  when  some  one  takes 
him  and  sympathetically  reveals  to  him  his  own  better  self? 
Will  he,  too,  not  go  forth  encouraged  and  highly  resolving? 
And  will  he  not  the  more  gladly  conform  to  the  social  will  as 


354  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

expressed  by  the  conditions  and  regulations  of  the  life  which 
surrounds  him? 

It  is  unnecessary  to  urge  that  there  is  always  something  in 
every  pupil  or  group  of  pupils  worthy  of  praise  and  that  any 
one  who  has  not  sufficient  insight  to  discover  it  cannot  but 
fail  at  a  most  vital  point  in  his  work.  It  is  also  unnecessary 
to  point  out  in  detail  the  many  advantages  that  arise  to  both 
the  teacher  and  the  pupil  because  of  the  new  relation  that  is 
established  between  them  by  an  expression  of  appreciation 
on  the  teacher's  part.  The  expressed  appreciation  must, 
of  course,  be  true,  growing  out  of  real  insight  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher;  the  youth  cannot  readily  be  imposed  upon  by  any 
sentimental  or  imaginary  virtues  that  the  teacher  might  be 
tempted  to  attribute  to  him;  for  he  will  not  be  fooled  in  this 
matter  and  the  one  who  tries  it  will  be  sure  to  lose  the 
pupil's  respect  and  consequently  fail  in  his  purpose.  It  is  a 
case  that  requires  both  insight  and  honesty. 

2.  Because  of  the  strong  social  bent  of  the  adolescent,  and 
because  of  the  altruistic  instincts  that  are  normally  develop- 
ing at  this  time,  there  are  certain  words  and  phrases  that  make 
a  strong  appeal  when  used  (if  not  overused)  by  the  right  person 
on  the  right  occasion.  These  are  examples  of  what  is  meant: 
"gentleman,"  "square  deal,"  "playing  the  game  fair,"  or  other 
terms  of  like  import.  Such  phrases  embody  some  of  the  uni- 
versally acknowledged  social  virtues  of  virile  manhood  and  hence 
make  a  powerful  appeal.  If  the  use  of  "gentleman "  is  reserved 
for  the  one  who  has  a  sense  of  proportion  and  relations  and 
hence  makes  his  conduct  appropriate  to  the  circumstances 
and  the  occasion,  the  term  will  have  much  meaning,  and  it  will 
have  a  pleasing  sound  in  the  ears  of  our  boys,  for  it  describes  a 
form  of  conduct  for  which  they  very  much  wish  to  have  credit. 
The  period  of  youth,  as  we  have  seen,  corresponds  in  the  world's 
history  to  the  age  of  chivalry;  it  is  the  time  in  hfe  when  every 
individual  wants  to  be  considered  a  gentleman  or  a  lady.    The 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  355 

expression  "square  deal"  has  come  to  have  great  significance 
and  a  rich  connotation  because  of  an  appealing  and  vigorous 
personaHty,  who,  in  recent  years,  gave  the  ideals  which  the 
phrase  implies  concrete  fulfilment;  hence  it  has  for  many  a 
kind  of  personal  appeal.  All  Americans  admire  the  one  who 
plays  "a  fair  game";  and  whatever  their  true  nature,  young 
people  of  high-school  age  desire  credit  for  good  sportsmanship; 
consequently  anything  that  implies  this  test  of  their  conduct 
is  likely  to  influence  them. 

But  this  is  only  one  side  of  our  story.  If  one  hundred  high- 
school  pupils  are  asked  to  make  a  careful  statement  as  to  the 
quality  they  consider  most  important  in  an  ideal  teacher  or 
principal,  a  very  large  majority  (the  majority  being  larger 
among  the  boys)  will  say  "fairness,"  or  something  to  that 
effect;  and  this  they  demand  so  far  as  their  position  as  pupils 
permit.  Youth  seems  to  have  an  instinctive  and  almost  un- 
reasoned sense  of  justice;  and  his  standards  of  justice  and  fair 
dealing  must  be  respected  and  fortified  and  made  part  of  his 
moral  character.  Sometimes  it  would  seem  that  the  high 
school  is  the  last  chance  for  many  to  develop  and  establish  a 
true  and  keen  sense  of  justice;  for  in  the  great  industrial  and 
economic  world  human  relations  are  often  discouragingly  out 
of  joint,  and 

"Man's  inhumanity  to  man 
Makes  countless  thousands  mourn." 

Amid  the  maladjustments,  anomalies,  and  exploitations  of 
the  industrial  maelstrom  is  not  a  safe  place  to  develop  a  sense 
of  justice.  Certainly  nearly  all  teachers  intend  to  deal  fairly 
at  all  times  with  their  pupils;  but,  if  the  pupils  mterpret  matters 
otherwise,  the  practical  results  are  the  same  as  when  the  in- 
tentions are  wrong,  being  a  form  of  social  ineflficiency  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  that  makes  for  failure.  The  teacher, 
too,  must  "play  the  game"  and  make  all  feel  that  he  does  it 


356  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

in  a  perfectly  fair  manner.  Even  the  severe  teacher  is  approved 
if  he  seems  just. 

3.  In  mentioning  the  words  and  phrases  to  conjure  with, 
we  might  well  have  included  another;  with  the  adolescent 
"honor"  is  a  word  of  much  potence.  When  "honor  is  the 
subject  of  our  story,"  we  may  well  expect  the  youth  to  be  as 
responsive  as  was  the  ancient  Brutus.  Yes,  "honor"  is  a  good 
word,  but  the  thing  for  which  it  stands  cannot  be  systema- 
tized, as  many  well-meaning  school  officials  have  tried  to  do; 
it  is  something  too  individual,  too  personal.  When  we  speak 
of  "honor  systems,"  either  we  are  using  the  word  "system" 
carelessly,  or  we  are  deceived  as  to  the  thing  itself;  like  "self- 
government,"  it  is  a  misnomer. 

Yet,  inaccurate  as  the  expression  may  be,  pupils  are  often 
fond  of  using  it  as  opposed  to  government  by  rules  and  regu- 
lations. They  are  proud  to  think  that  they  are  controlled 
by  motives  of  honor,  and  it  is  a  worthy  pride.  There  is  no 
doubt  but  that  honor  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  many  of  the  old-time  school  regulations.  The 
following  concrete  example,  reported  in  "The  Outlook"  for 
March  29,  1913,  will  illustrate  and  doubtless  be  of  interest. 

In  a  high  school  of  about  five  hundred  pupils,  in  one  of  the 
important  suburbs  of  Chicago,  there  had  been,  as  in  many 
schools  and  colleges,  considerable  trouble  in  the  boys'  g3nn- 
nasium  locker-room;  the  usual  stealing,  called  "swiping," 
had,  in  spite  of  locks,  become  a  continual  annoyance;  athletic 
and  gymnasium  goods  were  never  safe. 

At  the  opening  of  the  school  year  in  September,  the  principal 
called  a  meeting  of  the  boys  and  the  men  of  the  faculty  for  the 
purpose  of  considering  the  situation.  He  began  by  giving  the 
boys  the  results  of  his  observation  in  some  of  the  boys'  schools  of 
England,  where  the  term  gentleman  carries  with  it  the  idea  of 
honesty  and  good  sportsmanship,  and  where  athletic  property 
needs  no  protection  except  a  mark  of  ownership.    He  assured 


PRINaPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  357 

the  boys  of  his  belief  that  most  American  boys  are  gentlemen, 
and  he  assured  them  of  his  faith  in  them  and  their  ability  to 
deal  with  the  troublesome  problem.  The  meeting  was  so 
managed  as  to  encourage  perfect  freedom  of  discussion;  and 
there  was  developed  much  enthusiasm  in  favor  of  substituting 
honor  in  place  of  locks.  A  committee  of  boys  was  appointed 
to  formulate  a  plan;  a  simple  plan,  including  a  few  rules  and  a 
permanent  committee,  was  reported  at  the  next  meeting;  and 
the  plan  proposed,  which  came  to  be  known  among  the  boys  as 
"the  honor  system,"  was  adopted  by  a  vote  of  fifteen  to  one. 
According  to  the  plan  adopted,  all  locks  were  removed  from  the 
lockers,  and  a  committee  of  boys  had  full  charge  of  matters 
pertaining  to  the  locker-room  and  the  enforcement  of  rules 
concerning  athletic  and  gymnasium  equipment. 

The  scheme  worked  almost  perfectly;  as  far  as  was  known, 
all  "swiping"  stopped.  The  committee,  which  frequently 
sought  advice  from  the  principal  and  the  coaches,  handled  mat- 
ters with  promptness,  tact,  and  decision  when  there  was  any 
technical  violation  of  the  rules.  The  question  of  withholding 
information  concerning  what  happened  in  the  locker-room 
never  seemed  to  occur  to  the  boys;  loyalty  to  the  cause  appeared 
to  take  the  place  of  loyalty  to  "the  bimch."  The  committee 
in  charge  was  composed  of  the  president  of  the  boys*  athletic 
association  and  two  members  from  each  of  the  three  upper 
classes;  and,  although  the  committee  dealt  with  considerable 
severity  in  one  or  two  cases  of  violated  regulations  and  in  gen- 
eral was  very  exacting  in  the  performance  of  duty,  the  boys  on 
the  committee  retained  the  confidence  and  good-will  of  the 
other  boys. 

The  success  of  this  experiment  seems  to  indicate  (and  this 
is  the  reason  it  is  reported  here)  that  the  important  thing  in 
appealing  to  boys  of  high-school  age  is  to  trust  them,  to  have 
faith  in  their  ability  and  their  good  intentions,  and  to  show 
it  by  giving  them  as  much  responsibility  as  possible.    It  is 


35^  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

only  by  so  doing  that  we  can  really  place  matters  on  an  honor 
basis  and  rightfully  use  the  word,  a  word  which  naturally  makes 
a  strong  appeal  because  of  the  manly  and  noble  virtues  which 
it  imphes. 

4.  There  is  another  point  at  which  the  idea  of  honor  touches 
the  life  of  adolescents,  especially  boys,  and  which  at  times 
assumes  much  practical  importance;  and  that  is,  in  its  relation 
to  a  sort  of  code  of  honor  which  boj^s  invariably  maintain.  A 
famiUar  and  important  phase  of  the  code  makes  it  a  gross 
form  of  disloyalty  to  report  a  misdemeanor  of  a  fellow-pupil. 
This  matter  has  considerable  theoretical  interest  as  well  as 
practical  importance.  This  was  shown  by  the  large  nimiber  of 
thoughtful  people  who  participated  in  the  discussions  on  "Who 
Broke  the  Window?"  which  continued  for  several  issues  in  "The 
Outlook"  during  the  year  191 3;  and  the  great  variety  of  opin- 
ions there  expressed  indicates  that  we  are  still  far  from  complete 
agreement  on  a  matter  which  must  be  fundamental  in  our  deal- 
ings with  boys  from  fourteen  (age  of  the  boys  Good  and  Bad 
in  "The  Outlook"  discussions)  to  eighteen. 

Any  one  who  has  ever  been  a  real  boy  or  who  has  had  sym- 
pathetic contact  with  boy  life  can  have  no  doubt  as  to  the  moral 
position  that  all  normal  boys  take  in  this  matter  of  giving  in- 
criminating information  involving  any  of  their  group.  This 
unanimity  of  sentiment,  as  in  other  cases,  surely  has  significance. 
Because  the  adolescent  is  controlled  by  pretty  definite  ideals  of 
rectitude  and  loyalty  in  refusing  to  "squeal,"  and  because  of 
the  utter  contempt  that  is  felt  for  the  one  who  is  "sneaking 
and  low-down"  enough  to  tell,  the  idea  of  asking  a  boy  to  in- 
form on  members  of  his  group  is  something  from  which  one 
naturally  and  instinctively  recoils.  Yet  numerous  reasons 
are  forthcoming  why  the  desired  information  should  be  de- 
manded by  those  in  authority.  "Boys  are  expected  to  grow 
up  into  good,  public-spirited  citizens;  and  they  are  now  en- 
joying the  citizenship  of  their  school  with  its  many  privileges. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  359 

They  owe  a  duty  to  their  school  and  to  those  in  authority; 
they  should  aid  in  maintaining  order  and  protecting  property. 
Later,  if  asked  in  court  for  testimony  against  their  friends, 
they  must  Hell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but 
the  truth,'  and  to  do  this  is  a  mark  of  good  citizenship.  Thus 
it  is  a  part  of  the  training  for  good  citizenship  that  pupils  be 
made  to  understand  that  it  is  their  duty  to  expose  the  offenders 
that  they  may  be  brought  to  justice.  By  so  doing,  are  they 
not  proving  their  loyalty  to  their  school;  and,  in  the  last  an- 
alysis, are  they  not  acting  kindly  toward  the  guilty  by  making 
it  possible  that  they  may  learn  that  the  way  of  the  transgressor 
is  not  safe?" 

All  this  sounds  very  logical  to  the  adult  mind;  and  we  may 
be  sure  that  this  line  of  reasoning  had  its  origin  in  the  mind  of 
some  adult,  one  who,  perhaps,  has  failed  to  get  the  viewpoint 
of  the  real  boy-world,  or  who  has  found  it  very  inconvenient 
and  annoying  to  deal  with  this  phase  of  the  adolescent's  idea 
of  loyalty.  Although  usually  unconscious  of  it,  we  adults  have 
a  way  of  making  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  adult- 
world  the  criterion  by  which  we  measure  the  conduct  of  the 
younger  generation;  and  naturally  youth  applies  the  same  kind 
of  standards  and  reasoning  to  us.  When  we  ignore  or  out- 
rage some  of  their  cherished  ideals  and  standards,  it  is  well 
for  our  peace  of  mind  that  we  do  not  know  what  they  think  of 
us,  and  that  we  do  not  hear  the  appropriate  names  they  apply 
to  us. 

Whatever  practical  conclusions  we  may  reach,  it  is  wholesome 
to  look  at  the  matter  under  consideration  from  the  adolescent 
point  of  view.  When  asked  to  incriminate  any  of  his  group, 
the  youth  feels  that  he  is  asked  to  renounce  his  allegiance  to 
his  group  who  are  his  friends  (few  adults  have  sulB&ciently  good 
memories  to  reaUze  the  meaning  of  this) ;  and  he  is  renouncing 
this  allegiance  at  the  command  of  a  teacher,  who  is  of  necessity 
a  rank  outsider.    One  boy  of  sixteen  thinks,  "it  is  better  to 


360  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

have  the  teacher  mad  at  you  than  all  the  boys,"  "for  they  fi- 
nally become  your  fellow-citizens ; "  this  boy  is  serious  and  judges 
acts  by  their  distant  effects.  We  must  understand  that  shield- 
ing a  fellow-pupil  is  not,  in  the  mind  of  a  normal  boy,  a  ques- 
tion of  law  and  order  at  all;  hence  our  logical  inferences  con- 
cerning law  courts  do  not  appeal.  For  the  adolescent,  it  is  a 
serious  moral  question,  which  he  feels  that  he  must  decide  on  a 
higher  human  plane.  As  one  boy  about  to  graduate  from  high 
school  expresses  it,  "there  is  in  every  boy's  heart  a  higher  law, 
a  law  of  loyalty,  faithfulness  which  grown-ups  seem  to  lack"; 
this  is  "one  virtue,  one  quality  that  stands  out  above  all  others 
in  the  boy's  mind."  In  general  good  citizenship  demands  that 
the  individual  live  up  to  the  highest  ideals  of  conduct  known 
in  the  group  or  community  of  which  he  is  a  member;  the  high- 
school  pupil  who  is  steadfast  in  his  loyalty  to  his  group  is  living 
the  best  type  of  citizenship  of  which  he  knows,  for  he  is  con- 
trolled by  the  highest  ideals  of  his  group.  Are  there  not 
many  convincing  reasons  for  the  belief  that,  when  he  becomes 
a  member  of  an  adult  community  outside  of  the  school,  he 
will  Hve  up  to  the  highest  standards  he  finds  there?  At  any 
rate,  this  is  the  adolescent  viewpoint,  and  whose  case  are  we 
considering  anyway?  Is  it  that  of  the  adult,  or  is  it  that  of 
the  ordinary  high-school  pupil?  As  stated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  chapter,  it  is  fundamental  to  success  to  deal  with  people 
as  they  are,  rather  than  as  we  think  they  ought  to  be. 

This  youthful  way  of  looking  at  the  matter  is  also  shared 
by  many  who  have  had  much  experience  with  the  workings  of 
the  adolescent  mind.  To  these  it  is  satisfying  to  find  that  the 
late  Dr.  Royce  of  Harvard  University,  in  his  book  on  "The 
Philosophy  of  Loyalty,"  reaches  the  same  conclusion  on  purely 
philosophical  grounds  and  thus  expresses  himself.  "The 
parent  or  teacher  who  trifles  with  the  code  of  honor  of  chil- 
dren by  encouraging  the  talebearer,  or  by  even  requiring  that 
a  child  should  become  an  informer,  is  simply  encouraging 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  361 

disloyalty.    He    outrages    the    embryonic    conscience    of   his 
young  charge." 

In  all  of  the  foregoing  discussion,  it  is  assumed  that  the 
offense  is  some  form  of  mischief  or  trick,  damage  resulting  from 
carelessness,  infraction  of  some  school  regulation,  or  the  like. 
But,  if  the  misdemeanor  is  something  serious  that  really  affects 
the  welfare  of  the  group  morally  or  the  usefulness  or  ideals  of 
the  institution,  we  have  an  entirely  different  situation.  In 
this  case  we  must  secure  the  cooperation  of  all  the  right-minded 
members  of  the  group;  and,  if  the  matter  is  vital,  they  will 
stand  ready  to  make  common  cause  against  any  who  violate 
their  group  integrity,  as  was  done  so  vigorously  in  the  case  of 
stealing  athletic  goods  cited  above.  We  can  trust  the  boys' 
common-sense  and  moral  judgment  to  discriminate  between 
a  school  prank  and  something  that  jeopardizes  moral  charac- 
ter or  threatens  to  defeat  the  purposes  of  the  school. 

But  it  will  be  urged  that  frequently  things  happen  around 
a  high  school  concerning  which,  although  they  are  not  morally 
vicious,  it  is  well  for  those  responsible  to  know  the  whole 
truth;  certainly  all  with  experience  know  this  only  too  well. 
However,  there  is  another  way  and  a  better  one  of  securing 
the  desired  information  than  by  means  of  taletelling.  It  is 
by  frankly  and  fully  respecting  the  boys'  code  as  you  find  it, 
then  raising  the  whole  matter  to  a  higher  level  by  insisting, 
if  any  harm  has  been  done,  that  the  guilty  one  become  his  own 
informant.  The  culprit  who  does  this  at  once  finds  himself 
regarded  in  a  new  light  by  his  group;  he  is  admired  for  his 
frankness  and  courage;  his  friends  have  assurance  that  he  is 
not  "yellow."  When  this  is  brought  about  a  few  times  and 
becomes  an  established  practice  in  the  school,  we  have  intro- 
duced a  new  ideal  in  the  school's  code  of  honor,  and  one  in  which 
the  whole  school  comes  to  take  just  pride.  To  some  who  have 
not  made  use  of  this  plan  it  may  seem  impracticable,  but  such 
is  certainly  not  true;  it  is  on  the  ground  of  its  extreme  practi- 


362  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

cability,  as  well  as  of  its  importance  in  the  formation  of  char- 
acter and  its  good  influence  on  the  spirit  of  the  school  as  a 
whole,  that  this  method  is  urged.  It  is  true  that,  until  the 
standard  of  honor  necessary  to  bring  about  the  results  described 
is  firmly  estabhshed,  much  tact  and  determination  on  the  part 
of  some  one  who  has  the  respect  and  good  will  of  the  pupils 
are  needed;  and  it  is  an  ideal  of  conduct  that  requires  consid- 
erable time,  sometimes  more  than  one  year,  to  become  opera- 
tive in  a  large  school. 

When  the  desired  information  is  not  forthcoming,  one  can  en- 
list the  help  of  the  innocent  members  of  the  group  involved. 
This  help  they  are  ready  to  give  if  they  can  do  so  without  viola- 
ting their  ideals  of  honor;  generally  they  are  pleased  to  line  up 
on  the  side  of  the  right.  The  form  of  reasoning  is  something  like 
this:  no  one  wishes  you  who  are  innocent  to  expose  your  friends 
in  such  a  matter  as  the  one  under  consideration;  but  it  is 
neither  fair  nor  pleasant  that  your  innocence  should  not  be 
made  clear,  and  it  is  your  privilege  to  insist  that  those  who 
are  guilty  give  the  information  needed  to  clear  up  the  whole 
affair;  by  so  doing  you  exonerate  yourselves,  aid  in  establish- 
ing a  splendid  ideal  for  the  school,  and,  best  of  all,  you  are  help- 
ing your  erring  schoolmates  to  do  a  manly  act  that  will  in  the 
end  bring  real  satisfaction.  The  author  has  never  known  this 
mode  of  appeal  to  fail.  Public  sentiment  is  always  powerful 
and  the  pupils  can  easily  bring  sufficient  pressure  to  bear. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  discuss  the  great  advantage  that 
comes  in  establishing  and  fostering  right  relations  between 
the  pupils  and  those  directly  responsible  for  the  management 
of  the  school. 

5.  The  next  principle  of  appeal  to  be  considered  here  has, 
we  hope,  been  embodied  in  many  of  the  preceding  chapters; 
especially  is  this  unifying  principle  the  warrant  for  many  of 
the  things  urged  in  the  chapter  on  the  social  activities  of  the 
high  school;  in  fact,  it  is  fundamental  in  all  educational  think- 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  363 

ing  that  is  really  modern;  and  it  is  an  extremely  practical  work- 
ing-doctrine. Some  one  has  expressed  the  idea  by  saying, 
that  the  youth  must  be  treated  as  a  whole  if  the  treatment 
is  to  be  wholesome)  that  is,  we  must  appeal  to  his  whole  nature. 
For  many  reasons  we  are  inclined  to  think,  or  at  least  act,  as 
though  education  were  largely  an  affair  of  the  intellect.  This 
conception  of  the  matter  is  readily  explained.  In  our  high 
schools  we  have  been  busy  much  of  the  time  with  things  which 
appeal  to  the  intellect;  and  we  are  reassured  in  this  course  of 
procedure  because  our  efforts  along  this  line  are  capable  of 
more  or  less  supposedly  definite  measurements,  and  we  naturally 
find  comfort  and  satisfaction  in  any  form  of  tally  sheet. 

Again,  it  would  appear  that  the  appUcation  of  this  principle 
of  a  whole-souled  appeal  is  not  fostered  by  the  great  emphasis 
that  has  been  placed  in  recent  years  upon  the  study  of  psychol- 
ogy, especially  in  institutions  whose  function  it  is  to  train  teach- 
ers. Any  scientific  study  naturally  tends  toward  developing  and 
fixing  an  analytical  attitude.  Psychology,  being  a  science,  right- 
fully occupies  itself  with  descriptive  analyses  of  the  human 
soul;  and  is  it  not  to  be  expected  that  this  analyzing  habit  on 
the  part  of  the  trained  teacher  should  carry  over  into  his  treat- 
ment of  his  pupils?  But  the  practical  man  of  hirnian  affairs 
and  the  born  teacher  know  intuitively  that  the  human  values 
are  destroyed  when  we  force  on  them  the  catagories  of  psy- 
chology. The  men  who  have  been  most  successful  in  influenc- 
ing and  controlUng  their  fellow-men  have  always  dealt  with 
them  as  units  by  appealing  to  their  whole  natures;  they  recog- 
nize in  each  a  real,  willing  personality,  whose  inner  life  consti- 
tutes a  vital  unity.  The  late  Professor  Miinsterberg  has  re- 
minded us  that  oxygen  and  hydrogen  will  not  satisfy  a  thirsty 
man,  and  that  life  speaks  the  language  of  the  thirsty. 

Instead  of  being  a  matter  of  the  intellect,  education  in  the 
final  outcome  is  an  affair  of  attitudes  and  conduct;  and  we 
have  long  known  that  these  are  controlled  much  more  by  the 


364  fflGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

instincts  and  feelings  than  by  the  intellect.  We  also  know 
that  the  instincts  and  feelings  are  reached  most  surely  through 
the  imagination.  As  has  already  appeared  in  the  early  chap- 
ters, at  no  time  is  this  avenue  of  approach  through  the  imagina- 
tion so  wide  open  as  during  the  high-school  age.  The  adolescent 
mind  naturally  functions  much  of  the  time  through  the  imagi- 
nation, the  social  life,  and  the  emotions,  and  expresses  itself 
in  the  form  of  intellect  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  time. 
Thus  the  high-school  teacher,  in  order  to  make  the  strongest 
and  most  successful  appeal,  must  address  himself  to  the  whole 
nature  of  his  pupils;  for  him  his  pupils  are  much  more  than 
intellectual  mechanisms  ready  to  be  put  in  motion,  and  they 
are  much  more  than  psychological  specimens. 

6.  If  the  high  school  is  to  make  the  proper  appeal  to  its  pu- 
pils, the  spirit  and  principles  of  democracy  must  prevail.  This 
is  another  commonplace;  no  one  now  questions  the  wisdom  of 
this  doctrine.  But  only  those  who  have  had  experience  are 
aware  of  the  difl5culties  involved  in  maintaining  these  prin- 
ciples; let  the  trials  and  tribulations  of  those  who  have  had  to 
deal  with  fraternities  and  sororities  bear  testimony.  The 
causes  that  interfere  with  thoroughgoing  democracy  in  the 
community  are  naturally  active  in  the  school.  The  consequent 
difficulties  are  not  easily  overcome,  because  in  general  they 
cannot  be  met  in  the  open  and  regulated  like  other  troubles. 
Democracy  is  a  spirit  that  must  be  developed;  rules  and  regu- 
lations will  not  produce  it.  In  a  sense  democracy  is  like  faith; 
often  it  is  a  matter  of  growth.  When  the  spirit  of  democracy 
is  abroad,  each  sincerely  believes  in  the  worth  of  all  the  others 
and  that  they  are  to  have  a  full  opportunity  to  do  their  best. 
There  can  be  no  true  justice  without  it.  Unless  the  spirit  ol 
democracy  is  developed  and  its  principles  are  maintained,  the 
school  is  wanting  in  that  vital  social  unity  that  is  necessary  to 
its  highest  efficiency.  As  R.  S.  Bourne ,  asserts,  democracy 
"stands  people  up  on  their  own  feet,  makes  them  take  up 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  365 

their  beds  and  walk."  It  expects  every  one  to  carry  more 
than  his  own  load  with  neither  favor  nor  handicap. 

The  public  high  school  is  one  of  the  best  places  in  the  world 
to  inculcate  democracy.  If  not  perverted,  the  adolescent 
naturally  has  a  passion  for  justice  and  is  impatient  with  any- 
thing ^that  suggests  artificial  distinctions  or  unearned  honors; 
he  wishes  to  feel  himself  a  part  of  a  cooperating  group  of  equals. 
This  fits  in  with  his  ideals  of  fair  play  and  his  natural  robust- 
ness. At  heart  he  is  willing  to  be  stripped  of  all  distinctions 
except  those  which  come  from  character,  natural  ability,  and 
his  own  efforts.  This  is  the  youth  as  nature  would  have  him; 
and  the  school  conditions  are  favorable  for  his  nurture.  In 
the  public  school  the  pupils  are  actuated  by  a  common  purpose, 
and  that  a  worthy  one;  in  accomplishing  this  purpose,  they 
expect  neither  advantages  nor  favors.  They  learn  and  measure 
one  another  by  the  way  they  do  their  work  and  the  spirit  they 
show  in  the  games  and  by  their  bearing  toward  each  other. 
All  this  surely  is  a  humanizing  influence.  The  high  school  can 
well  be  our  ideal  democracy;  if  it  is  not,  it  will  fail  to  appeal 
to  the  best  that  is  in  its  pupils,  and  they  will  not  get  the  truly 
American  view  of  life. 

7.  The  next  doctrine  to  be  presented  as  necessary,  if  the 
school  is  to  make  the  strongest  possible  appeal  to  its  pupils, 
is  one  which  in  its  application  maybe  the  source  of  much  trouble, 
hence  lead  to  considerable  discouragement  on  the  part  of  any 
one  who  attempts  to  apply  the  principle  in  its  extreme  form; 
consequently  one  hesitates  to  urge  it  in  a  book  intended  pri- 
marily for  the  inexperienced.  Briefly  stated  it  is  this:  In  every 
high  school  the  pupils  should  be  given  the  greatest  possible 
amoimt  of  reasonable  freedom.  For  most  high-school  pupils, 
the  period  of  habitual  morality  is  past.  As  Dr.  G.  S.  Hall 
suggests,  they  wish  to  act  on  personal  experience  and  "keep 
a  private  conscience."  The  appeals  of  previous  years  are  no 
longer  effective;  and  Dewey  is  "apprehensive  of  an  education 


$66  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

that  occupies  the  adolescent  with  doing  what  some  one  tells 
him  to  do,"  as  this  does  not  make  for  independence,  stability, 
self-reliance,  or  initiative.  To  insist  on  arbitrary  rules  and 
regulations  at  this  time  arouses  antagonism.  Even  in  far-off 
Ben  Jonson's  day,  it  was  held  that 

."  Force  works  in  servile  natures,  not  the  free." 

As  to  how  much  freedom  is  reasonable,  hence  safe  and 
helpful,  depends  upon  conditions,  which  include  especially 
the  moral  and  social  status  of  the  community  whence  the 
pupils  come  and  the  way  the  pupils  have  been  previously 
dealt  with;  that  is,  those  things  which  aid  in  determining  the 
spirit,  traditions,  and  ideals  of  the  school.  In  the  application 
of  this  principle  of  the  greatest  possible  freedom,  it  is  the  part 
of  wisdom  to  "make  haste  slowly."  For  mankind  as  a  whole, 
freedom  is  "an  acquired  character;"  and,  as  Paulsen  afl&rms, 
it  "must  be  acquired  anew  by  each  individual."  Determin- 
ing the  degree  of  freedom  that  is  wholesome  for  high-school 
pupils  is  a  delicate  procedure.  It  must  never  be  confused  with 
license,  as  it  was  in  Russia."  As  Goethe  insists,  "only  within 
the  circle  of  law  can  there  be  true  freedom;"  that  is,  there  is 
no  freedom  for  all  individuals  unless  each  individual  of  the 
group  keeps  within  due  bounds,  which  have  been  pretty 
definitely  determined.  These  are  not  arbitrarily  determined 
bounds;  but  they  have  been  slowly  established  by  the  race. 
It  is  only  when  one  has  learned  to  move  in  harmony  with 
the  rhythmic  throb  of  the  moral  conscience  of  mankind  that 
he  is  free.    This  is  what  the  poet  means  when  he  says: 

"  He  is  the  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free 
And  none  is  free  beside." 

When  we  acknowledge  higher  ideals  and  standards,  we  establish 
our  freedom,  for  thus  we  prove  that  the  higher  ideals  are  in 
us.    So  it  comes  about  that  the  limitations  referred  to  must, 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  367 

in  the  last  analysis,  be  self-imposed.  Stated  subjectively, 
they  are  in  general  the  limitations  dictated  by  common-sense, 
common  loyalty,  and  respect  for  the  rights  of  others. 

Because  of  the  general  and  abstract  form  of  statement,  the 
effectiveness  of  this  principle  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which 
it  is  appUed,  hence  the  danger  involved  in  its  use.  However, 
the  school  that  does  not  work  persistently  and  continuously 
toward  freedom  falls  short  of  doing  the  best  that  can  be  done 
to  develop  strong  men  and  women.  It  is  not  a  mere  paradox 
to  say  that  we  must  give  people  a  chance  to  be  fooHsh  in  or- 
der to  teach  them  to  be  wise;  there  is  no  other  way  to  real 
wisdom.  It  is  a  twofold  process:  youth  must  mature  the  power 
to  judge  fitting  action,  and  at  the  same  time  develop  the  strength 
of  will  to  carry  it  out.  The  wisdom  which  knows  and  the  virtue 
which  does  both  come  only  through  experience;  and  there  can 
be  no  experience  where  all  is  determined  and  imposed  from  with- 
out, however  wise  the  ready-made  formulas  and  however  skil- 
fully they  are  administered.  To  quote  Hall  again,  "in  nature's 
economy,"  the  youth  must  "strive,  fight,  and  storm  his  way 
up  if  he  would  break  into  the  kingdom  of  man."  The  funda- 
mental difference  between  the  child  and  the  adult  is  the  differ- 
ence between  superimposed  and  self-imposed  limitation  of 
freedom;  and  it  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  high  school  to  aid 
in  leading  the  impulsive,  inexperienced  child  into  the  estate 
of  reasoning,  self-directing  manhood  and  womanhood. 

8.  The  next  principle  or  suggestion  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
comment  on  all  that  has  gone  before;  or  perhaps  it  may  be 
understood  to  embody  the  teaching  and  spirit  of  the  whole 
book.  Establishing  habits  of  conduct  and  forming  character 
are  matters  of  guiding,  controllings  and  inspiring  rather  than 
initiating  and  compelling.  The  numberless  instincts  and  fac- 
ulties are  there  awaiting  the  master-hand  that  will  turn  their 
natural  and  ceaseless  activity  into  safe  and  fruitful  channels. 
It  is  an  encouraging  and  helpful  truth  to  contemplate  relative 


368  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

to  character  and  conduct,  that  virtue,  as  well  as  vice,  is  con- 
tagious; so  that,  when  the  tide  is  setting  in  the  right  direction, 
we  can  count  on  much  wholesome  and  effective  aid;  for  the 
guiding  and  sustaining  influence  of  the  stronger  individuals 
of  any  group  is  always  awaiting  the  one  with  an  imaginative 
imderstanding  of  youth's  ideals  and  aspirations  who  will  em- 
ploy it. 

9.  Experience  and  observation  lead  the  author  to  beheve 
that  by  far  the  strongest,  safest,  and  most  effective  motive  to 
which  we  may  appeal  is  that  of  loyalty]  if  so,  it  is  the  most 
helpful  both  to  the  individual  and  to  the  school.  The  term 
loyalty  is  here  used  in  the  ordinary  sense,  which  Dr.  Royce 
briefly  and  clearly  defines  as,  "a  willing, practical,  and  thorough- 
going devotion  to  a  cause."  The  "cause"  may  be  anything 
to  which  willing  service  may  be  rendered;  but  it  must  always 
be  something  more  than  a  mere  sentiment  or  personal  whim. 
Many  well-meaning  people  have  been  wont  to  recommend  al- 
truism and  self-forgetfulness  as  the  safest  and  most  exalted 
motive  that  we  can  make  use  of  in  appealing  to  our  fellow-men; 
these  are  truly  high  and  worthy,  and  no  one  can  gainsay  them; 
they  have  prompted  the  bravest,  the  most  beautiful,  and  the 
most  romantic  deeds  and  lives  that  the  world  has  thus  far  seen; 
in  their  higher  reaches  they  may  be  thought  of  as  divine.  But 
the  ordinary  adolescent  needs  something  more  robust,  and 
this  Dr.  Royce  finds  in  the  concept  of  loyalty,  with  its  many 
implications.  The  reader  familiar  with  his  philosophy  of 
loyalty  will  trace  its  influence  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Loyalty  is  a  strong  motive  at  this  time  of  life,  because  it  is 
social  in  its  outlook;  and  this  is  the  period  when  the  social 
instincts  are  the  most  powerful.  Loyalty  always  (except  in 
the  figurative  sense  of  self-loyalty)  concerns  others  and  is 
powerfully  unifying  in  its  effects,  binding  the  many  in  one  ser- 
vice. Again,  it  is  a  strong  motive,  in  that  loyal  conduct  is 
never  conceived  as  determined  by  mere  fate  or  by  the  will  of 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  369 

others;  it  always  presupposes  freedom  of  choice  and  voluntary 
action;  because  of  the  independent  nature  of  youth,  this  makes 
an  effective  appeal.  Moreover,  it  is  fascinating  for  young  people 
to  be  identified  with  and  work  for  a  cause;  for  it  gives  a  sense 
of  self-importance  and  self-respect;  the  loyal  individual  feels 
that  he  counts  at  least  one,  while  he  is  establishing  harmony 
between  himself  and  his  social  world.  Again,  the  service  of 
loyalty  is  a  pleasure,  and  that  an  unselfish  pleasure,  since  the 
cause  is  always  something  outside  of  self.  Finally,  loyalty  is  a 
strong  motive,  because  it  is  contagious,  especially  among  ado- 
lescents. 

In  shaping  conduct  and  character,  loyalty  is  the  safest  mo- 
tive to  which  we  can  appeal:  its  exercise  always  means  self- 
control  and  leads  to  self-restraint;  it  means  devotion  to  a  mean- 
ingful service,  joyfully  rendered;  and  it  means-interest  in  some- 
thing or  somebody,  and  deep  and  genuine  interest  in  something 
outside  of  self  is  a  safe  and  wholesome  attitude  of  mind  to  es- 
tablish. Loyalty  is  safe  because  it  furnishes  a  center  around 
which  individual  action  moves  and  toward  which  purposeful 
actions  tend;  it  blends  youthful  egotism  with  whole-hearted 
devotion;  hence  it  naturally  gives  rise  to  a  unity  of  purpose, 
and  this  makes  for  stabiUty  and  fixity  of  character.  More- 
over, genuine  loyalty  is  a  force  leading  toward  social  con- 
formity, which  is  a  safe  and  constant  influence  tending 
toward  social  efficiency,  a  decidedly  practical  and  permanent 
result. 

Loyalty  is  especially  effective  as  a  motive  at  this  time  of 
life,  because,  as  Dr.  Royce  expresses  it,  it  means  doing  the  "will 
of  some  fascinating  social  power;  this  power  is  the  cause." 
The  cause  becomes  the  youth's  opportunity,  gives  scope  for 
the  exercise  of  his  faculties,  and  makes  him  feel  that  he  has  a 
mission  in  life  which  is  his  to  fulfil.  The  cause  in  which  he 
is  interested  makes  a  most  kindly  and  persuasive  appeal  to 
his  self-will,  the  logical  result  being  a  union  of  his  natural  in- 


370  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

terest  and  his  free  choice.    It  tends  to  arouse  in  every  youth  a 
fine  spirit  of  high  resolve. 

"When  Duty  whispers  low,  Thou  must, 
The  youth  repKes,  I  can." 

It  is  not  easy  to  exhaust  all  the  ways  in  which  loyalty  as  a 
motive  is  directly  helpful  to  the  individual.  Loyal  conduct 
has  two  marked  characteristics,  namely,  fidelity  and  decisive- 
ness. There  can  be  no  loyalty  without  faithfulness  to  a  cause, 
and  there  can  be  no  conduct,  so  far  as  the  cause  is  concerned, 
that  is  worthy  of  the  motive,  unless  it  is  definitely  willed  and 
decisive;  and  this  kind  of  conduct  continually  practiced  tends, 
like  other  conduct,  to  become  natural  and  part  of  character. 

Now  with  regard  to  loyalty  and  the  school  as  a  whole.  All 
who  have  made  use  of  this  motive  know  that,  when  the  spirit 
of  loyalty  is  present  in  a  high  school,  it  is  an  influence  most 
helpful  to  those  responsible  for  the  discipline  and  management. 
It  may  become  a  force  capable  of  linking  into  one  the  wills 
of  the  variously  minded  individuals;  hence  follows  uniformity 
of  sentiment  and  action  on  the  part  of  the  student-body,  as 
judged  by  results  —  an  effect  once  sought  by  means  of  rules, 
regulations,  and  absolute  authority. 

Again,  a  genuine  spirit  of  loyalty  makes  for  fair  play  in  all 
sports  and  a  chivalrous  respect  for  the  adversary;  for,  when 
pushed  to  its  logical  conclusions,  loyalty  includes  tolerance 
toward  one's  opponents  and  sincere  respect  for  their  point 
of  view. 

This  much  concerning  loyalty  as  a  strong,  safe,  and  effective 
motive  of  appeal;  now  with  respect  to  its  application.  We 
must  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  an  enlightened  loyalty 
means  a  rational  and  worthy  cause;  and  it  is  here  that  the  call 
comes  for  much  wisdom  and  tact  on  the  part  of  some  one, 
wisdom  to  choose  and  tact  in  suggesting  the  causes  to  which 
the  pupils  are  to  devote  themselves.    Here  is  much  scope  for 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  APPEAL  371 

the  psychology  of  suggestion;  for  the  final  choice  of  a  cause 
is  to  rest  with  the  individual,  otherwise  it  will  not  be  his  cause, 
hence  will  want  its  fascination  and  potency.  Further,  the  cause 
must  be  such  as  gives  an  opportunity  to  be  one  in  spirit;  herein 
is  its  charm  and  effectiveness,  making  possible  the  most  en- 
joyable cooperation.  In  other  words,  the  cause  must  in  a  sub- 
tile way  combine  self-surrender  and  self-expression,  the  Christ- 
like and  the  Emerson-like  attitudes;  and  it  would  seem  that 
loyalty  is  the  only  motive  of  action  that  does  this.  Moreover, 
the  cause  must  be  one  that  the  entire  school  can  espouse,  other- 
wise it  would  not  stand  the  test  of  democracy;  it  must  call 
for  a  maximum  of  significant  and  rational  enterprise,  such  as 
can  be  loyally  carried  out  by  all. 

Those  who  have  had  experience  with  adolescents  will  under- 
stand the  advantage  of  choosing  a  fitting  symbol  which  will 
always  stand  for  the  cause  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  It 
may  be  symbolized  by  something  that  appears  very  trivial  in 
the  eyes  of  an  adult  or  any  one  on  the  outside;  it  may  be  merely 
the  school  colors,  a  pennant,  a  school  yell,  or  what  not,  so  long 
as  it  stands  for  and  is  always  associated  with  a  worthy  cause. 
Successful  political  and  social  leaders  have  always  recognized 
the  importance  of  this  principle;  a  party  or  a  movement  must 
have  a  name  and  a  symbol,  and  the  symbol  may  be  nothing 
more  than  the  cheapest  kind  of  a  button. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  thing  that  can  be  said  with 
respect  to  loyalty  as  a  motive  and  its  effective  application  is, 
that  it  is  developed  and  kept  active  only  by  the  influence  of 
personal  leaders.  The  teacher  who  is  not  a  leader  cannot 
make  much  use  of  it  but  must  appeal  to  lower  and  less  effective 
motives;  talking  about  "loyalty"  will  not  engender  or  foster 
loyalty. 

In  this  chapter  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  suggest  some 
of  the  principles  which  underUe  successful  appeals  to  high- 
school  pupils  and  some  of  the  ways  of  applying  these  principles. 


372  HIGH-SCHOOL  PROBLEMS 

The  aim  has  been  to  present  only  principles  and  methods  in 
keeping  with  the  nature  of  adolescents  and  based  on  actual 
experience.  If  anything  helpful  has  been  said,  the  chapter 
is  important;  for  everybody  knows  many  things  that  high- 
school  pupils  ought  to  do,  but  not  all  are  able  to  get  them  to 
do  these  things. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

For  Chapter  IT 

Fiske,  Boy  Life  and  Self-Government 

Hall,  Yotdh,  chap,  i 

Hall,  Adolescence,  preface 

King,  Psychology  of  Child  Development 

daughter,  The  Adolescent 

Stevenson,  Lantern-Bearers 

For  Chapters  UI-VII 

Boas,  Growth,  Cyclopedia  of  Education 

Bourne,  Youth  and  Life 

Burnham,  The  Study  of  Adolescence,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  i,  pp. 

174-195 
Douglas,  Fifteenth   Year  Book,  National   Society  for   the  Study  of 

Education 
Fiske,  Boy  Life  and  Self-Government 
Giles,  School  Review,  vol.  xxxv,  pp.  433-442 
Hall,  Youth  and  Adolescence 

Hall  and  Turner,  Adolescence,  Cyclopedia  of  Education 
Henderson,  What  is  it  to  he  Educated  ? 
Inglis,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chaps,  i-iii 
King,  The  High-School  Age 
King,  Educational  Review,  vol.  Ivi,  pp.  19-27 
Lancaster,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  v,  pp.  61-128 
Outlook,  1913,  discussions  on  Who  Broke  the  Window? 
Slattery,  The  Girl  in  Her  Teens 
Slaughter,  The  Adolescent 
Swift,  Mind  in  the  Making 
Whipple,  Psychology  and  Hygiene  of  Adolescence,  Monroe's  Principles 

of  Secondary  Education 

For  Chapter  VHI 

Bagley,  School  and  Home  Education,  vol.  xxiv,  p.  3 
Bagley  and  Judd,  School  Review,  vol.  xxvi,  pp.  313-323 

Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  June  30,  1914 
37.^ 


374  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Briggs,  The  Junior  High  School 

Davis,  School  Review^  vol.  xxvi,  pp.  324-336 

Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  vol.  ii,  No.  7 

Fifteenth  Year   Book,  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 

part  iii 
Howard,  The  Junior  High  School,  Middlebury  College  Bulletin,  vol.  xi. 

No.  I 
Inglis,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education 
Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  v 
Johnston,  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  Ixxxiv,  p.  91 
Jones,  School  Review,  vol.  xxvi,  pp.  1 10-123 
Judd,  The  Evolution  of  a  Democratic  School  System 
Judd,  School  Review,  vol.  xxiii,  pp.  25-38;  vol.  xxiv,  pp.  249-260 
McCartney,  School  Review,  vol.  xxv,  pp.  652-658 
Very  complete  bibliography  on  the  Junior  High  School,  Bureau  of 

Education,  May  1919 

For  Chapter  IX 

Inghs,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap,  iv 
King  The  High-School  Age,  chap,  x 

For  Chapter  X 

Bagley,    Fundamental   Distinctions    between     Vocational   and   Liberal 

Education,  School  and  Home  Education,  vol.  xxxiii,  pp.  239-245 
Betts,  Standards  of  Value  in  a  Changing  Curriculum,  Illinois  State 

Teachers'  Association,  1916,  pp.  50-58 
Committee  of  Ten,  Report  of 

Hollister,  High  School  and  Class  Management,  chap,  xv 
Inghs,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chaps,  xi  and  xx 
Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  viii 
Johnston,  School  Review,  vol.  xxii,  pp.  577-590 
Rynearson,  School  Review,  vol.  xxiv,  pp.  692-700 
Snedden,  Monroe's  Principles  of  Secondary  Educaiion,  chap,  xxi  and 

pp.  214-229 
Spencer,  Education,  chap,  i 
Young,  Educational  Review,  vol.  liii  pp.  122-145 

For  Chapter  XI 

Harwood,  School  Review,  vol.  xxvi,  pp.  273-281 
Inglis,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap,  ix 
Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  xiv 
Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap,  xx 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  375 

For  Chapter  XIII 

Baker,  Principles  of  Argumentation 
Foster,  Argumentation  and  Debating 
Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  xvii 
Lyon,  Elements  of  Debating 
Lyon  and  Baker,  The  Principles  of  Debating 
Roger,  The  High-School  Debate  Book 
University  of  Wisconsin  Bulletin 
Whately,  Elements  of  Rhetoric 

For  Chapter  XIV 

Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  xix 

For  Chapter  XV 

Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chaps,  xvii  and  xxvii 
Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap,  xix 

For  Chapter  XVHI 

Biglow,  Sex  Education 

Ellis,  A  High-School  Course  in  Physiology  in  which  the  Facts  of  Sex  are 

Taught,  Treasury  Department,  Bulletin  No.  50 
Exner,  Problems  and  Principles  of  Sex  Education 
Foster,  Social  Emergency:  Studies  in  Sex-Hygiene  and  Morals 
Galloway,  Biology  of  Sex 
Gerrish,  Sex  Hygiene 
Hall,  Sexual  Knowledge 
Hall,  Reproduction  and  Sexual  Hygiene 
Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  pp.  266-270 
VanBuskirk,  The  Place  of  Sex  Education  in  Biology  and  General  Science 
Zenner,  Education  in  Sexual  Physiology  and  Hygiene 

For  Chapter  XIX 

Adler,  Moral  Instruction  of  Children 

Bagley,  Educational  Values,  part  i 

Bagley,  The  Educative  Process,  chaps,  iii  and  vii 

California  prize  essays.  Moral  Training  in  the  Schools 

Dewey,  Moral  Principles  in  Education 

Englemen,  Moral  Education  in  School  and  Home 

Gould,  Moral  Instruction 

Holmes,  Principles  of  Character  Making 

Johnston,  The  Modern  High  School,  chap,  xxix 


376  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Monroe,  Principles  of  Secondary  Education,  chap,  viii 
Neumann,  Moral  Values  in  Secondary  Education 
Palmer,  Ethical  and  Moral  Instruction 
Sadler,  Editor  of  Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  School 
Schroeder,  The  Psychology  of  Conduct 
Sharp,  A  Course  in  Moral  Instruction  for  the  High  School 
Sisson,  Essentials  of  Character 

Sneath  and  Hodge,  Moral  Training  in  the  School  and  Home 
Spencer,  Education,  chap,  iii 
SpiUer,  Moral  Education  in  Eighteen  Countries 

Spiller,  Papers  on  Moral  Education,  first  International  Moral  Education 
Congress 

For  Chapter  XX 

Royce,  Philosophy  of  Loyalty 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Addams,  Jane,  62,  220 

Aristotle,  51 

Arnold,  Matthew,  191 

Babcock,  77 

Bagley,  W.  C,  137,  150,  iSS» 

203,  240,  307,  341,  342,  350 
Barber,  F.  D.,  144 
Barnes,  Earl,  120,  121,  124 
Bell,  Sanford,  76 
Bergson,  336 

Betts,  George  H.,  185,  200 
Bible,  32,  100,  123,  124 
Boas,  F.,  42,  44 
Bourne,  Randolph  S.,  31,   75, 

118,  119,  288,  364 
Briggs,  T.  H.,  132,  134,  140 
Bryant,  72 
Bunyan,  339 
Bums,  94,  355 
Butler,  N.  M.,  131 

Cajal,  50 

Cubberley,  E.  P.,  157 
CofiFman,  L.  D.,  169 
Compton,  C.  W.,  40 
Corson,  Hiram,  229 

Davenport,  F.  M.,  164,  165 

Davis,  C.  O.,  159 

Dewey,  John,  81,  123,  131,  135, 

250,  337,  36s 
Donaldson,  50 
Douglas,  A.  A.,  149 
Drahms,  102 


Eliot,  Charles  W.,  131,  209 
Emerson,  117,  125,  231,  239,  370 
Exner,  M.  J.,  323,  324,  330,  333 

Findlay,  J.  J.,  4 
189,      Fiske,  John,  ss 

Fiske,  G.  W.,  17,  277 
Flechsig,  50 
Foster,  W.  T.,  262 
Francis,  132 
Freud,  S.,  216 
Friedrich,  J.,  120, 121 

Goethe,  366 
80,      Graber,  J.  P.,  221 
Grifl&ng,  72 
Gulick,  279,  295 
Guyer,  D.  M.,  loi 

Hall,  G.  Stanley,  27,  33,  44,  47,  56, 
58,  60,  62,  68,  74,  79,  93,  95,  105, 
107,  122,  226,  249,  257,  263,  279, 
280, 282, 288, 292, 294, 345,365,367 

Hall,  W.  S.,  330,  331 

Hanus,  P.  H.,  131 

Hartwell,  Dr.,  52 

Heckel,  16 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  119 

Hollister,  H.  A.,  158 

Holyocke,  J.  G.,  255 
182,     Home,  H.  H.,  292 

James,  William,  22,  51,  91,  338 
Johnston,  C.  H.,  128,  138,  142,  160, 
178,  190,  198 
377 


378 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Jones,  A.  J.,  156,  159 
Jonson,  Ben,  366 
Judd,  C.  H.,  6,  137,  139,  155 
Junius,  252 

Kaes,  50 

Kaiser,  50 

Kant,  120 

Keats,  351 

Kennard,  Victor,  292 

Key,  Axel,  52 

King,  Irving,  34,  36,  94,  170,  171 

Klein,  120 

Kline,  L.  W.,  103,  345 

Kiilpe,  74 

Lancaster,  E.  G.,  66,  70 
Landois,  47 
Lee,  Joseph,  7 
Leete,  Dean,  203 
Lewes,  G.  H.,  123 
Longfellow,  83,  100 
Lowell,  81 
Lyttle,  E.  W.,  132 

MacKensie,  Morell,  55 
Marro,  40 
Meiklejohn,  A.,  197 
Montaigne,  37 
Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  363 

Naismith,  Dr.  James,  296 
Neumann,  121,  351 

Palmer,  G.  H.,  13,  237,  243,  283, 

337,  340,  346 
Paul,  St.,  342 
Paulsen,  Friedrich,  366 
Pericles,  35^ 


Perry,  C.  A.,  218 
Plato,  82,  280 

Riia,  Jacob,  m 

Robbins,  E.  C,  254 

Rousseau,  16,  30 

Royce,  Josiah,  5,  97,  360,  368,  369 

Ruskin,  112 

Sargent,  D.  A.,  45 

Schiller,  228 

Scott,  C.  A.,  214 

Sears,  C.  H.,  227 

Shakespeare,  36,  117,  344 

Sheldon,  H,  D.,  225 

Sisson,  E.  O.,  350 

Slaughter,  J.  W.,  57,  75,  96, 106, 122 

Snedden,  David,  36,  131,  140,  213 

Socrates,  85 

Spencer,  Herbert,  180,  248,  338 

Stetson,  134 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  10 

Swift,  E.  J.,  163,  303 

Tagore,  35 
Taylor,  E.  H.,  148 
Tennyson,  82,  119 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  232 
Thucydides,  353 
Thurber,  C.  H.,  120 
Tomlinson,  134 
Tryon,  149 

Van  Denburg,  J.  K.,  168,  169,  170, 

171,  172 
Vulpins,  50 

Wood,  Arthur,  in 
Wordsworth,  19,  66,  117,  124 


INDEX 


Administration     of     junior 

school,  159-164 
Adolescence  and  athletics,  284 

exaggerated  generally,  28-29 

in  general,  22-39 

and  esprit  de  corps,  207-208 

and  health,  51-52 

and  morality,  335-336 

and  the  senses,  66-75 

series  of  crises,  31-32 

signs  of,  43-44 

worthy  study,  39 
Adolescent  altruism,  94-95 

anger  and  fighting,  106-107 

aspirations,  117 

cardinal  problem,  96-97 

conformity,  352 

cruelty,  107-108 

derangements,  52-53 

development,  early,  33 

development,  stages,  34-38 

doubting,  83 

dreams  and  reveries,  83-84 

emotion,  84-85 

enthusiasm,  84-85 

gregariousness,  90-91 

ideals,  117 

incorrigibility,  104-105 

larks  and  adventures,  102-103 

moral  being,  98 

organizing  tendencies,  214 

psychology  as  criteria,  4 

psychology  incomplete,  2-3 

robbery,  109 

social  instincts,  Sgr^ 


high     Adolescent  altruism,  social  nature, 
88-97 

stealing,  no 

sympathy,  91-92 

temptations,  302-303 

truancy,  103-104 

visions,  117 
Adult  leadership,  35-36 
Adviser  for  debating,  256-257 
Adviser  of  organizations,  223-224 
Advisory  system,  173-174 
Agricultural  curriculum,  205 
Allied  groups  of  studies,  198 
Altruism,  94-95 
American  high-school  group,  168- 

176 
Anger  and  fighting,  106-107 
Animal  kingdom  and  sex  traits, 

61 
Anti-social  acts,  102 
Appreciation  of  good,  352-354 
Approbation,  love  of,  92-94 
Art  and  adolescence,  25 
Art  in  junior  high  school,  150 
Aspirations  of  adolescents,  117 
Assembly,  307-316 
Assembly  programs,  308-311 
Assembly,  a  social  affair,  31 1-3 13 
Athletics,  277-301 

coaching,  289-291 

evils,  285-288 

faculty  attitude,  277-278 

management,  298 

mental  qualities,  282 

moral  qualities,  282-284 

379 


38o 


INDEX 


Athletics,  necessary,  277 

psychology  of,  278-279 

science,  300-301 
Attitude  toward  life,  new,  59 
Awkward  age,  35 

Baseball,  294-295 

Basket-ball,  294 

Big  Injun  age,  7 

Blood  pressure,  47-48 

Bone  growth,  45-46 

Book  reviews,  233-234 

Brain  development,  49-50,  248 

Breathing  capacity  and  training,  55 

Changeableness  of  adolescence,  29 
Character  and  life  complex,  344 
Character  forming  and  athletics,  279 
Character  sketches,  234-235 
Charms  and  fetishes,  63 
Child  psychology,  2 
Civics  in  junior  high  school,   149 
Club  life  and  preadolescence,  20 
Collecting  propensities  of  preado- 

lescents,  9 
Commercial  curriculum,  206 
Commercialization     of     adolescent 

nature,  116 
Committee  of  Ten,  196-197 
Concrete    method    in    junior    high 

school,  155 
Conference  hours,  175 
Conscience,  338-339 
Constants,  203 

Cooperation  in  adolescents,  37-38 
Cooperation  in  social  activities,  222 

-223 
Cooperation,  training  in,  217,  255 
Contradictory  moods  of  adolescents, 

28 
Cost  of  junior  high  school,  162-163 


Credit  for  debating,  263-264 
Criminals  born,  loi 
Criminal,  meaning  of,  102 
Criminal  out-croppings,  loo-ioi 
Crisis  of  adolescence,  31-32 
Cruelty,  107-108 
Culture,  191-192 
Culture  epochs  theory,  16-17 
Curriculum,  177-212 

administration,  210 

changes,  185 

definitely  planned,  204 

flexibility,  209 

general  principles,  188-194 

maker,  181-183,  210-211 

making,  142,  178-179,  210-211 

material,  201 

never  ideal,  180 

rich  and  changing,  196 

storm  center,  177-178 

system,  199 

types,  205-208 

Dancing,  226-228 
Debating,  235-236,  248-267 

clubs,  programs,  259-260 

credit,  263-264 

dangers,  249-250,  257-258 

interschool,  257-258,  264-267 

instruction,  260-261 

management,  250 

organizations,  258-259 
Democracy,      educational       back- 
ground, 150 
Democracy,  principles  of,  364-365 
Development,  early  and  rapid,  33 
Development  of  adolescence,  stages, 

34-38 
Diet  and  digestive  troubles,  56 
Diet  changes  and  bone  growth,  54 
Doubting  attitude,  83 


INDEX 


381 


Dramatics,  228-230 
Dramatization,  235 
Dreams  and  reveries,  83-84 

Early  adolescence,  34-36 

determines  junior  high  school,  134 
Early  high  schools,  168-169 
Education  and  social  conditions,  330 
Education,  new  definition,  186-187 
Educational  procedure  determined,  i 
Eight-four  plan,  128 
Elective    subjects    in    junior    high 

school,   1 50-1 5 1 
Elementary  to  high  school,  126-127 
Elements  of   knowledge   and  jjre- 

adolescence,  19 
Emotion  and  enthusiasm,  84-85 
Energy  of  adolescents,  22 
English  in  curriculum,  202 
English  in  junior  high  school,  142- 

144 
Enthusiasm  of  adolescents,  84-85 
Episcopal  church  and  adolescence, 

24-25 
Errors    in   studies  of   adolescence, 

26-30 
Eugenics,  329 

Evangelical   churches   and   adoles- 
cence, 25 
Expression,  many  forms,  232 
Extensive  treatment  in  junior  high 

school,  154 

Fads  of  preadolescents,  10-12 

Fair  dealing,  354-35S 

Fighting,  106-107 

Football,  291-293 

Foreign  language  curriculum,  207- 

208 
Formal  discipline,  185-186 
Formative  period,  32-33 


Freedom,  347-348,  365-367 
Functional  derangements,  52-53 
Function  of  adolescent  psychology,  3 
Functioning  of  senses,  66-67 
Functions  of  high  school,  183-184 
Functions  of  junior  high  school,  165 

-166 
Fundamental  muscles  and  health, 

56-57 

Games  for  high-school  boys,  291-297 
Games  for  preadolescents,  12-13 
Gang  spirit,  in  preadolescents,  10- 

12 
Gregariousness,  90-91 
Growth  of  adolescents,  45-51 
Growth  of  high  schools,  169 

Habits  of  enjoyment,  221 
Health  and  adolescence,  51-52 
Health  and  fundamental  muscles, 

56-57 
Health  of  preadolescents,  18 
Health,  science  and  common-sense, 

57 
Heart  growth,  47-48 
Heart  strain,  55 

Height  during  adolescence,  44-45 
Hetero-centric    nature    of    adoles- 
cents, 89 
High  school  age,  37 
group,  168-176 
growth,  169 

ideal  for  social  training,  176 
purpose  of,  183-184 
History  in  junior  high  school,  149- 

150 
Home  economics  curriculum,  205- 

206 
Honor  and  "honor  systems,"  356- 
358 


382 


INDEX 


Honor  code  of  adolescents,  358-362 
Human  development,  7 
Human  nature,  352 
Hygiene  of  adolescence,  54 
Hygiene  of  preadolescence,  54 

Ideals  of  adolescents,  117 

controlled,  122 

determined  by  conditions,  120 

influence  of  age,  120 

influence  of  education,  121 

influence  of  environment,  121 

influence  of  sex,  1 21-12  2 

influence  of  social  status,  1 20-1 21 

origin  and  meaning,  11 7-1 18 
and  the  will,  1 19-120 
and  youth,  11 8-1 19 
Ideas  about  morality,  344 
Impulses  in  preadolescence,  17 
Incorrigibility,  104-105 
Independent  thinking,  82 
Individual  needs,  200 
Infantile  love,  76 
Initiative  of  adolescents,  37 
Insight  of  preadolescents,  9 
Instincts  and  imagination,  338 

migratory,  64-65 

of  sex  long-circuited,  62-63 

shifting,  179-180 

social,  89-96 
Intellectual  awakening,  81-82 
Intellectual  perspective,  85 
Interschool  debating,  264-267 

Journalism,  268-276 
Junior  high  school,  126-167 

administration,  159-164 

building,  164 

dvics,  149-150 

cost,  162-163 

curriculum,  135-136 


Junior    high     school,     curriculum 
material,  140 
definition,  133-134 
early  adolescence,  36,  134-135 
efl&ciency,  135 
English,  142-144 
equipment,  164-165 
fimctions,  165-166 
fundamental    propositions,    136- 

139 
History,  149-150 
history  of,  131-133 
mathematics,  146-149 
methods,  135-136 
organization,  159-164 
program  of  studies,  1 51-15  2 
psychology  of,  129-130 
remedy,  128-129 
science,  144-146 
social  activities,  163 
subject-matter,  136 
teachers,  156-159 
text-books,  165 
Juvenile  affection,  76-78 

Knighthood  and  adolescence,  24 

Larks  and  adventures,  102-103 
Late  adolescence,  37-38 
Leadership  of  adolescents,  38 
Leadership  of  adults,  35-36 
Leadership,  training  in,  217,  254-255 
Life  and  sex  instincts,  65 
Life  characteristic  of  adolescence,  31 
Literary  societies,  232-247 

functions,  232-233 
Literature  and  adolescence,  25 
Love,  development  of,  75-76 

final  stage,  79 

infantile,  76 
Loyalty,  368-371 


INDEX 


383 


Lung  development,  48 

Lying,  112 

causes  and  motives,  11 2-1 15 
effects  on  society,  115 

Majors,  201 

Mathematics,  correlated,  208 
in  junior  high  school,  146-149 

Manual  training  curriculum,    206- 
207 

Mechanical    training    and    preado- 
lescence,  19 

Membership  of  organizations,  230- 
231 

Memory  of  adolescent  experiences, 
26 

Mental  dangers  of  adolescence,  6i- 
62 

Mental  growth  and  physical  ma- 
turing, 58 

Mental  growth,  irregularity,  58-59 

Mental  life  and  sex  instincts,  61 

Mental  reconstruction,  58-87 

Methods  of  appeal,  352-372 

Methods  in  junior  high  school,  152- 

153 

suited  to  preadolescents,  19 
Middle  adolescence,  36-37 
Migratory  instincts,  64-65 
Minors,  203 
Modem  high  school,  activities  of, 

221-222 
Moral  aspects  of  adolescence,  98- 
125 

atmosphere,  347 

difference,  99-100 

education,  335-351 

evolution,  123 

ideas,  344 

instruction,  dangers,  345 

training,  219-220 


Moral  aspects  of  adolescence,  unrest 

and  school  work,  100 
Morality  and  adolescence,  335-336 

in  preadolescence,  14 
MoraUty  and  sex,  335 
Morals,  origin  of,  338 
Motor  center,  training,  280-281 
Motive,  loyalty,  368-371 
Motives  and  preadolescence,  16 
Muscle  growth,  46-47 
Music  in  junior  high  school,  150 

Nature  and  adolescence,  72 
Nature's  appeal  to  preadolescence, 

18-19 
Nature  of  high-school  group,  168- 

176 
Nerve  development,  50-51 
New  birth  idea,  30-31 
New  subjects,  186 
New  York  high  schools,  170 
Novelists'  use  of  sex  charms,  63-64 

Obedience  and  preadolescence,  21 
Organizations  of  junior  high  school, 

159-164 
Organizations  of  preadolescents,  13 
Organizing  tendencies  of  adolescents, 

214 

Parliamentary  law,  236 
Perception  in  preadolescence,  8 
Period  of  withdrawal,  78-79 
Personal  freedom,  123-124 

influence,  124-125 

life,  340-341 
Personality  and  adolescence,  32-33, 

96 
Personality  in  preadolescence,  15 
Personality,  physical  center  of,  98- 
99 


384 


INDEX 


Petty  larceny,  iio-iii 

Physical  basis  of  new  thoughts,  82 

center  of  personality,  98-99 

characteristics  of  preadolescents, 
8 

growth,  inferences,  53-57 

maturing  and  mental  life,  58* 

training,  208 

training  in  junior  high  school,  150 
Physiological  age,  41 

causes  of  moral  differences,  99- 
100 

changes,  40-57 
Pleasure,  220 
Poetical  awakening,  72 
Preadolescence,  7-21 

and  boy  life,  20 

introduction  to  adolescence,  7 
Preadolescent  desire  for  facts,  9 

games,  12-13 

health,  18 

impulses,  17 

indifference  to  sex,  13-14 

knowledge  without  content,  9 

morality,  14 

non-social  nature,  13 

obedience,  21 

organizations,  13 

perception,  8 

personality,  15 

religion,  15 

savagery,  15 

self-assertion,  14 

sex  education,  323 

social  characteristics,  10 

sympathy,  15 

traits  appear  in  adolescence,  21 

truthfulness,  21 
Primitive  peoples  and  adolescence, 

23 
Principles  of  appeal,  352-371 


Principles  of  curriculum  making, 
188-194 

Program  of  studies  in  jimior  high 
school,  1 51-15  2 

Proof,  meaning  of,  252-253 

Pyschic  growth  and  brain  develop- 
ment, 51 

Psychological  age,  41 

Psychological  aspects  of  morality, 

337-33^ 

solution  of  problems,  1-2 
Psychology  of  adolescence,  2-3,  22- 

125 
Puberty,  40-41 
Puberty,  age  of,  41-43 
Public  speaking,  208 

"briefs,"  245-246 

subjects,  239-243 
Punishments,  348-349 
Pupil  finance,  302-306 

Questionnaire  method  and  adoles- 
cence, 29-30 

Railroads  and  the  adolescent,  108- 

109 
Reason  exercised  in  debate,  250-251 
Reason  in  preadolescence,  9 
Rebuttal  in  debate,  261-263 
Recapitulation  theory,  16-17 
Recreation,  220 
Rectitude,  33^-339 
ReHgion  in  preadolescence,  15 
Romans  and  adolescence,  24 
Rules,  347-348 

School  paper,  268-276 
faculty  adviser,  275 
functions  of,  269-270 
management,  273-275 
problems,  270-271 


INDEX 


38s 


School  paper,  responsibility,  276 

staflf,  271-272 
School  studies,  349-351 
Science  in  curriculum,  209 

in  junior  high  school,  144-146 
Secretiveness  of  adolescents,  27 
Self-assertion  of  preadolescents,  14 
Sense  development  in  adolescence, 

66-75  ^ 
Sense  functions  change,  66-67 
Sequential  group,  198 
Sex  central  factor  in  adolescence, 

317 
Sex  characters,  primary  and  sec- 
ondary, 60 
charms  and  fetishes,  63-64 
education,  317-334 
education,  emphasis  in,  319-320 
dangers,  318 

information  needed,  325-328 
method  of  approach,  318-319 
method  of  teaching,  331-332 
functions,  maturing  of,  40 
instincts  and  life,  65 
instincts  and  mental  life,  61 
instincts  long-circuited,  62-63 
Sex  and  morality,  335 

in  preadolescence,  13-14 
Sexual  life,  change  to,  59-60 
Short  stories,  234 
Significance  of  adolescence,  22 
Signs  of  adolescence,  43-44 
Sin  and  virtue,  struggle,  122-123 
Smell  and  adolescence,  70 
Soccer,  293-294 
Social  activities,  213-231^ 
credits,  231 
functions  of,  213 
of  junior  high  school,  163 
Social  administration,  5 
aspects  of  morality,  337-338 


Social    administration,     character- 
istics of  adolescents,  88-97 
characteristics  of  preadolescents, 

10 
conformity,  96-97 
education,  213-214 
efficiency,  96 

environment  dominant,  88 
heritage,  96 
instincts,  89-96,  216 
needs,  200 
organizations,   faculty   attitudes, 

214-216 
organizations,  number  and  kind, 

224-225 
psychological  treatment,  345-346 
status  in  high  schools,  171 
training  in  high  school,  1 76 
Sociological  solution  of  problems, 

1-2 
Sounds  in  nature,  72 
Speaking,  extemporary,  236-246 
Spiritual  gifts,  341-342 
Stages  of  adolescent  development, 

34-38^ 
Stealing  within  family,  no 
Stimulation,  susceptibility  to,  53-54 
Stimuli,  responses  to  change,  73-74 
Stories  and  preadolescents,  18 
Study  of  adolescence,  39 
Studies,  influence  of,  349-351 
Subconscious  self,  341 
Suggestive    methods    with    adoles- 
cents, 85-87 
Supervised  study,  175-176 
Sympathy,  91-92 
Sympathy  in  preadolescence,  15 

Tastes  and  adolescence,  68-70 
Teachers  in  jimior  high  schools,  156- 
159 


386 


INDEX 


Teaching  of  morality,  335-337 

Tennis,  296-297 

Text-books  for  junior  high  schools, 

Thinking,  training  in,  255-256 
Thought  processes,  physical  basis, 

82 
Thought,  realm  of,  79-80 
Touch  and  adolescence,  67-68 
Track  events,  295-296 
Training  in  fair  play,  253-254 
Training  in  initiative,  251-252 
Truancy  and  running  away,  103-104 
Truthfulness  and  preadolescence,  21 
Twofold  life  of  preadolescent,  20 

Understanding  of  youth  needed,  4 
Unity  of  individual,  262-264 


Unresponsive  period,  80 

Upper  grades  and  subject-matter, 

140-141 
Utility,  191-192 

Values  determined,  194-195 
Variability  in  maturing,  41 
Verbal  contest,  248 
Vision  during  adolescence,  72-73 
Visual    imagination    of    preadoles- 

cents,  9 
Voice,  care  of,  55-56 
Voice  changes,  49 
Vocal  consciousness,  new,  70-71 
Vocational   expectation   of   pupils, 

171-172 

Weight  during  adolescence,  44-45 


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